History of Chabad in the USSR - 1989

Book detailing the history of the Chabad movement in the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1950

History of Chabad in the USSR (Hebrew: Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit) is a 1989 historical work documenting the struggles and activities of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement in the Soviet Union between 1917 and 1950.

The book covers the period from the Bolshevik Revolution through the leadership of Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn (the Rebbe Rayatz), focusing on resistance to religious persecution by the Yevsektsiya (Jewish Section of the Communist Party), underground yeshivas, and efforts to sustain Jewish observance.

Background

Compiled by Rabbi Shalom Dovber Levin based on letters, documents, and oral testimonies, the work was published by Kehot Publication Society in Brooklyn, New York.^[1]

It details the Rebbe Rayatz's campaigns, arrests, exile, and support networks for Chabad communities, including the network of underground Tomchei Temimim yeshivas that operated across dozens of towns. The book is organized thematically with chronological elements, featuring a special section on the yeshiva network (chapters נא–צח) and emigration (צט–קכ).

Chapter extracts

Chapter 1: The first years of Soviet rule

Describes the Bolshevik takeover in late 1917, the civil war, founding of the Yevsektsiya, early anti-religious propaganda and measures (synagogue seizures, closure of communal institutions), and the relatively limited special targeting of Chabad before the mid-1920s. Most Jews remained traditional; open freethinkers were few.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yevsektsiya | Tomchei Temimim | Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Significant quotations

The Communist government, upon coming to power, did not immediately emphasize in its official laws its opposition to religion. At the very beginning of its existence it proclaimed the separation of religion from the state and that religion was the private affair of citizens. This law did not particularly hinder Jewish institutions, which previously had not received support from the state treasury either. ^[2]

In the first year of the Yevsektsiya’s existence it did not have real influence on the Jewish street. The Jews of Russia were then mostly believing Jews, the sons of believers… The number of freethinkers was small. ^[2]

Chapter 2: The state of the economy – at the end of the war

Covers the devastation from war, pogroms (especially in Ukraine), famine, nationalization of property, and the extreme poverty that prevented reconstruction of religious institutions. Sabbath-observing Jews were barred from state factories; private trade was restricted.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Meir Gorkov | Israel Jacobson | Yevsektsiya

Significant quotations

The years of war, years of siege, illness and famine, years of pogroms, pillage and murder… which passed over our land… made desolation in the land and, God forbid, it was as if the divine light had already been extinguished. How many houses of study and synagogues were destroyed, Torah scrolls torn and burned, rabbis, community leaders and shochetim with thousands of Jews were killed and slaughtered… — Rebbe Rayatz letter, 22 Tevet 5683 (1922–1923) ^[3]

Chapter 3: Dispatch of mashpi’im throughout Russia

Details the post-1920 (after the Rebbe Rashab’s passing) organized sending of mashpi’im to towns to establish fixed Torah and Chassidus study, “Kupat Rabbeinu,” and strengthen Jewish life. Includes early instructions and reports.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Also endeavour in the matter of establishing fixed study of Chassidus in the towns… and the establishment of chadarim in the towns… — Rebbe Rashab’s will ^[4]

Chapter 4: Strengthening Judaism in Georgia

Covers emissaries sent to Georgia and the Caucasus from the late 1910s onward (Levitin, Slavin, Shushkin, Zuber, Perlove, etc.), founding of cheders and yeshivas, and later developments including arrests.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The cheder, thank God, has grown… and he made them a cheder in another town, and in a second and third, until he travelled through all the towns of the country… — Rebbe Rayatz ^[5]

Chapter 5: Establishing the destroyed religious institutions

Describes efforts (with limited foreign aid) to rebuild mikvaos, support rabbis/shochetim/melamdim, and the shift toward NEP-era small-scale economic activity that partially enabled religious life until 1929.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | David Schifrin | Shneur Zalman Havlin | Agudas Chassidei Chabad | Joint Distribution Committee

Significant quotations

Every community and assembly in Israel is doing great work to re-establish all matters of religion and to rebuild them as at the beginning, but they lack the means… and in this I turn to our brothers the House of Israel everywhere… to found a special society to come to the aid of the Hebrew communities in our land… ^[3]

Chapter 6: Establishing a spiritual rabbinical centre

Recounts the founding of the Rabbinical Centre in 1923 under the Rebbe’s initiative, its work against anti-religious measures, and continuation after the Rebbe’s departure.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

From the year 5682 (1921–1922), in this month until Sivan 5687 (1926–1927), almost no week passed in which I did not do difficult work in the yoke of Torah, and in open and hidden war with the persecutors of religion, namely the well-known Yevsektsiya. — Rebbe Rayatz ^[6]

Chapter 7: The struggle against the closure of the chadarim

The longest early chapter, subdivided into obtaining permits for private study with three pupils, memoranda and petitions, the law after the permit, continued persecutions, establishment and support of chadarim, the year 5688 (1927–1928), subsequent years, and compulsory education laws. Includes extensive documentary material on Yevsektsiya actions and legal battles. Details the 1923-1924 legal interpretations allowing limited private religious instruction (up to 3 pupils), Yevsektsiya propaganda and show trials against melamdim, establishment of underground or semi-legal chadarim supported by the Rebbe's network, lists of towns with numbers of pupils and support needs in 1928, the impact of the 1930 compulsory education law forcing parents to send children to Soviet schools or face penalties, and individual accounts of parents continuing clandestine education.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

In the general session of the VTsIK… on Saturday 7 July 1923… Krylenko… declared that home studies in private groups are not included in the prohibition at all. ^[7]

The Yevsektsiya… set for itself the mission of making possible the uprooting of the Torah from among the Jewish people… and of liquidating the teachers of the Jewish people. ^[8]

There are those who think that the Torah has already disappeared entirely from the House of Jacob in our land... but it is also true that Israel is not yet widowed and there are still many boys and youths whose fathers entrust them to study Torah. — Shlomo Yosef Zevin ^[9]

Chapter 8: The struggle against the seizure of the synagogues

Details the systematic confiscation of synagogues by the Yevsektsiya for clubs and other uses, starting from the early years of Soviet rule. Describes legal efforts by the Rabbinical Centre and lawyers (including Orinson), petitions to Kalinin, local resistance (e.g., in Oni, Georgia, where residents physically prevented closure until military intervention), gradual takeover of remaining synagogues by the mid-1930s, formation of secret minyanim in private homes, and efforts to protect or relocate Torah scrolls. Includes specific letters from 1933-1934 describing conditions in towns like Nikolayev, Krivoy Rog, Uman, and others.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The synagogues are taken by force for clubs... while the chadarim of Israel are closed, and the people in whom there is the scent of Torah and service are persecuted, insulted and judged, by the young men who have shaken off every good feeling... — Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Tammuz 5683 (1922–1923) ^[10]

In general, persecutions of the religion have now begun in order to uproot the remnant of the survivors; they take and close the synagogues and batei midrash (only secretly and cunningly, so as not to make a noise abroad). — Yaakov Zachariah Maskalik, 1934 ^[11]

Chapter 9: Spreading Torah – Tiferet Bachurim

Describes the Rebbe's efforts to establish regular Torah study sessions in synagogues and the organization of "Tiferet Bachurim" groups for young workers, merchants, and students (ages ~18-35) to study Chumash, Kitzur Shulchan Aruch, Gemara, etc., in the evenings. Supported by the Rabbinical Centre in multiple cities including Moscow, Leningrad, Minsk, Vitebsk, Nevel. Reports of hundreds of members and positive impact on Jewish life.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Shlomo Yosef Zevin | Eliyahu Chaim Althaus | Tiferet Bachurim

Significant quotations

The experience has shown me that in Tsaritsyn... in seven synagogues, thank God, they study in every synagogue between Mincha and Maariv and after Maariv a Gemara lesson, and this costs me five rubles... per month. — Rebbe Rayatz ^[12]

Chapter 10: The covenant to the last drop of blood

Recounts the winter 1924 (5684 (1923–1924)) Moscow assembly of Tomchei Temimim students (eight or nine “temimim”) who swore an oath of self-sacrifice “to the last drop of blood” for Torah and Judaism. The Rebbe divided regions among them for underground work establishing chadarim, fixed study sessions, and mikvaot. Shortly afterward the GPU sought to arrest the Rebbe in Rostov; he relocated temporarily and then moved the household to Leningrad. Includes accounts of a 19 Kislev farbrengen in Rostov and the participants’ subsequent activities.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

After the histalkus, decrees began against Torah and chadarim. In 5684 (1923–1924) nine temimim—students of Tomchei Temimim—gathered in Moscow and I was the tenth, and we all swore to sacrifice ourselves for Torah until the last drop of blood. We then divided the work in the country, each to a separate region. This had a great influence on the country and hundreds of Talmud Torahs and chadarim were founded. — one of the participants ^[13]

I selected eight young temimim with healthy heads and hearts and hands and feet. I called them together to Moscow for an assembly, and we swore an oath that whatever would be, one must be ready to go to the last drop of blood. — Rebbe Rayatz, 13 Tammuz 5692 (1931–1932) talk ^[13]

Chapter 11: Strengthening Judaism in the colonies (koloniyes)

Details efforts from the mid-1920s to support Jewish agricultural colonies (especially in Crimea, Kherson, and nearby districts) established with Joint Distribution Committee assistance. The Rabbinical Centre sent questionnaires, emissaries (including Simcha Gorodetsky), and funds for shochetim, melamdim, mikvaot, and synagogues. Includes extensive lists of colonies and their needs, negotiations with Joint officials, and the Rebbe’s insistence that material aid be accompanied by religious infrastructure. Later sections note famine-driven departure of many shochetim in the early 1930s.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

A special chapter is the fifth department, the colonies department in the districts of Crimea, Kherson, Kriukovo and others… the new settlements being built in Crimea and elsewhere without any sign of Judaism and without any scent of ancestral tradition, without a place for prayer and without a teacher for Torah, without a shochet for kashrut and without a mikveh for purity… — Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927) ^[14]

Chapter 12: Mission of R. Benzion Shemtov

Covers the 1925–1927 (approx.) clandestine travels of Benzion Shemtov through Volhynia, Kiev, and Podolia. He established dozens of chadarim and several secret yeshivas, organized Tiferet Bachurim groups, fixed study sessions, and mikvaot, while compiling statistical reports on Jewish religious life. He was later arrested and sentenced to three years in Siberia.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

For two and a half years he travelled, thank God, in great success, and founded very many tens of chadarim, and delivered passionate speeches about fixed times for Torah… and a different spirit entered Volhynia. — Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) ^[15]

Chapter 13: Mission of R. Binyamin Gorodetsky

Describes Binyamin Gorodetsky’s 1927 mission to the Kiev region. He reorganized and expanded chadarim and yeshivas (including taking over an existing yeshiva in Podol), established “Torah Temimah” and “Ohalei Shem,” and worked among both observant and newly attracted Jews until his arrest around early 1931 and subsequent exile.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Binyamin Gorodetsky | Tomchei Temimim

Significant quotations

In the summer of 5687 (1926–1927) a letter from our Rebbe was received at the administration of the beis midrash, in which he expresses his desire to send me as a rabbi to Kiev and the surrounding districts, and also for the purpose of organizing chadarim, Talmud Torahs and yeshivas. — Binyamin Gorodetsky, Sefer Zikaron ^[16]

Chapter 14: Mission of R. Simon Yakovashvili (Yakobson)

Recounts the Georgian-born temim Simon Yakovashvili’s 1926–1927 mission throughout Georgia after Shmuel Levitin’s departure. He established chadarim, yeshivas, and mikvaot and delivered public addresses. Yevsektsiya head Litvakov later complained that the Rebbe’s emissaries had revived religious life even in distant Georgia and Turkestan. Includes coded letters describing his arrest and release.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Wherever we turn—not only in White Russia or Little Russia and Inner Russia but even in distant corners such as Georgia and Turkestan—there too are found the messengers and agents of Rabbi Schneersohn to maintain the institutions of religion. — Litvakov, head of the Yevsektsiya, as reported 5687 (1926–1927) ^[17]

Chapter 15: Mission of R. Simcha Gorodetsky

After his Crimean colonies work, Simcha Gorodetsky was sent in 1926 to Samarkand/Bukhara. He founded a large Talmud Torah (reportedly reaching ~800–1,000 children and 25–45 melamdim) and a Tiferet Bachurim group among the local Bukharan Jewish community.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Simcha Gorodetsky | Tomchei Temimim

Significant quotations

He put himself in actual danger and came to Bukhara, and thank God in the city of Samarkand he founded chadarim and within about three months gathered about eight hundred young students… — Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) ^[18]

Chapter 16: Organizing home handicrafts (kustar)

Covers the Rebbe’s efforts during the NEP period to promote and obtain Joint support for Jewish religious craftsmen (kustarniks) who could observe Shabbat while earning a living. Includes detailed proposals submitted to Joint officials in Moscow and Berlin, the founding of an artel in Leningrad, and correspondence highlighting the desperate economic situation of observant Jews barred from state employment.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Joint Distribution Committee | Dr. Rosen | Dr. Haukin

Significant quotations

I am not content with the work in matters of Torah and buildings; I am submitting a memorandum to the Joint concerning aid for handicraft work—kustar—and I am founding, by means of letters, a bureau in New York that will enter into discussions with the members of the Joint… — Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928) ^[19]

Chapter 17: Livelihood of Anash

Describes the severe economic distress of Chabad hasidim (Anash) in the mid-1920s. Most were small traders or kustarniks whose livelihoods were collapsing under Soviet restrictions. The Rebbe and the Rabbinical Centre (via Shmuel Levitin) circulated questionnaires to former Tomchei Temimim students about their skills and willingness to take up agriculture or crafts, while continuing to press the Joint for support. Includes detailed accounts of the Rebbe’s household expenses in Leningrad and the general poverty that made even supporting the yeshiva network difficult.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The state of Anash is that there is no need to describe their condition in general, and the main thing is that small trade from private individuals and the kustarniks have recently been declining lower and lower… the majority of Anash are merchants and a very small minority engage in some handicraft… — Yitzchak Leib Neishuler letter, 2 Menachem Av 5686 (1925–1926) ^[20]

Chapter 18: Separation of religion from the state and the Yevsektsiya

Presents a detailed memorandum (delivered by the Rebbe to Professor Haukin in 1927) contrasting official Soviet law on separation of church and state with the actual practices of the Yevsektsiya and local authorities. Documents how Yevsektsiya pressure led to forced atheism, closure of synagogues, harassment of parents providing religious education, discrimination against observant employees and students, and the absence of genuine Jewish representation before the government. Notes that the Yevsektsiya’s anti-religious campaign continued mainly until around 1930.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yevsektsiya | Professor Haukin | Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Significant quotations

The religion is declared the private affair of the believer. The state does not intervene at all in the sphere of religion… To our regret, however, we see facts that grossly contradict the above situation. ^[21]

Chapter 19: The Leningrad Conference

Recounts the 1925–1926 crisis surrounding a proposed all-Russian Jewish communal conference initiated by the largely secular leadership of the Leningrad Jewish community (under Gorowitz). The Rebbe and observant circles strongly opposed it, fearing it would be exploited by the Yevsektsiya and freethinkers to introduce reforms. The chapter details the split in the Leningrad community, the founding of the pure “Tzemach Tzedek” congregation under Shimon Lazarov, public meetings, the Rebbe’s open letter of 13 Sivan 5686 (1925–1926) condemning the conference, and the eventual collapse of the project under GPU pressure. Eliyahu Chaim Althaus’s long contemporary account is extensively quoted.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

It is clear to me that this conference which the Leningrad community is thinking of calling is unclean… I am utterly opposed to any general conference whatsoever, and I testify by all that is holy to me that the initiators of the idea of the general Leningrad conference have an evil thing concealed in it… — Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928) letter ^[22]

A general religious conference of the community of Israel who fear God and keep the Torah and the commandments in this country… has great value, and very great responsibility is involved in it and in its results… [But] the “general religious conference” which the Leningrad community is calling is new in the land and departs from the rule… — Rebbe Rayatz open letter, 13 Sivan 5686 (1925–1926) ^[23]

Chapter 20: The Korosten Conference

Describes the October 1926 (Marcheshvan 5687 (1926–1927)) conference of nearly 100 rabbis (mainly from Volhynia and Ukraine) held in Korosten under official Soviet permission. Initiated by local rabbis (including Shmuel Kipnis) as a counterweight to the secular Leningrad proposal, it focused on strengthening religious institutions. The Rebbe was elected honorary president in absentia; Shlomo Yosef Zevin and others played leading roles. The gathering raised Yevsektsiya and GPU hostility and contributed to later arrests. Includes the official participant list and contemporary press reports.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The assembly of the Volhynian rabbis in the city of Korosten… made a great impression on the world of religious (Orthodox) Judaism. In total there were close to one hundred rabbis… The assembly chose His Honor [the Rebbe] as honorary president in his absence… — Elchanan Dov Marozov letter, 3 Kislev 5687 (1926–1927) ^[24]

Chapter 21: The arrests

Covers the wave of arrests in 1926–1928 of the Rebbe’s secretaries and emissaries connected to the underground Torah work and the conferences. Benzion Shemtov was arrested in Ovruch, held in Kharkov, and sentenced to three years in Siberia. Elchanan Dov Marozov was arrested in early 1927 on a fabricated charge and exiled to Siberia. Others arrested or sentenced to forced labor included Shlomo Chaim Kesselman (Polotsk), Binyamin Gorodetsky (Kiev), and several Nevel yeshiva students. The chapter draws on the Rebbe’s letters, Yechezkel Feigin’s reports, and contemporary accounts.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The Yevsektsiya smelled that there is a hidden hand working and making great propaganda in spreading Torah… and for about three months he felt that he had a shadow following his tracks… and one day in Adar 5687 (1926–1927) they caught him in the city of Ovruch and sent him bound in iron chains under heavy guard to the city of Kharkov and put him in prison… — Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) ^[25]

Chapter 22: The Rebbe continues the struggle

Despite the arrests of his closest aides and the personal danger, the Rebbe continued directing the network of underground yeshivas and chadarim. Yechezkel Feigin, then managing the dispersed Tomchei Temimim branches, visited him after Pesach 5687 (1926–1927) and recorded the Rebbe’s continued focus on the general work even while physically weakened.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yechezkel Feigin | Tomchei Temimim

Significant quotations

Despite all this the Rebbe continued his work with self-sacrifice, without taking into account the arrests of the workers with him, nor the risk that they were preparing to arrest him as well… ^[26]

Chapter 23: The arrest of the Rebbe and his exit from Russia

Narrates the Rebbe’s arrest on the night of 15 Sivan 5687 (June 1927) in Leningrad, the interrogations, his refusal to abandon tefillin, the 19 days of imprisonment, transfer to Kostroma, then to Malakhovka near Moscow, and the intensive international efforts that secured his release and permission to leave the Soviet Union in the autumn of 5688 (Tishrei). Includes coded and open letters from Anash describing the shock in Jewish Russia, public fasts, and the Rebbe’s own later account of the period. He settled in Riga.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

A time of trouble for Jacob. On the night of Wednesday 15 Sivan they called our honored friend [the Rebbe] the verse Genesis 39:20 [And Joseph’s master took him and put him into the prison]… The eyes of all Israel in our country are covered with tears of blood, they decree fasts everywhere. Danger faces all Israel and the Torah. ^[27]

Blessed is He who has kept us alive and sustained us and brought us to this time, that I am able to come into correspondence with my beloved and faithful friends… for during the last three months of my dwelling in our country I was deprived of the ability—because of the watchful eyes of the known searchers—to write even regards. — Rebbe Rayatz, 8 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928), from Riga ^[28]

Chapter 24: The Committee of Shield and Shelter for the Jews of Russia

Upon settling in Riga, the Rebbe reorganized and expanded the external aid committee (previously planned with figures such as Dr. Meir Hildesheimer, Wolf of Frankfurt, and others). Meetings in Riga in late 1927 / early 1928 defined a multi-branch program: support for yeshivas and chadarim, mikvaot and synagogues, legal defense against Yevsektsiya actions, kustar (handicraft) assistance, and work in the colonies. The chapter includes the detailed protocol of the Riga meetings and the formal work plan of the “Committee for Strengthening Torah and Religion in Soviet Russia.”

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The work must be conducted under the supervision of the head of the center over the course of the work and its educational guidance, as was the practice in Leningrad… ^[29]

Chapter 25: Support for the Jews of Russia

Focuses on the material (not only spiritual) aid organized by the Rebbe Rayatz immediately after leaving the USSR and settling in Riga. Priority was given to expanding home handicraft (*kustar*) work, the only viable livelihood for Sabbath observers once state employment and private trade were restricted. Detailed memoranda were sent to Prof. V. Haukin (Alliance Israélite) and others; the Rebbe stressed that the aid was for all Russian Jews, not only Chabad. Trips to Berlin and other European centers were made for this purpose.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Not only spiritual support did our Rebbe extend to the Jews of Russia upon reaching the free world, but also, and perhaps mainly, material help… the only work possible for Sabbath observers. ^[30]

Chapter 26: Sending Matzos to Russia

Documents the large-scale 1929 (Adar–Nisan 5689 (1928–1929)) campaign that shipped dozens of train cars of baked matzos plus thousands of parcels of Passover flour. Signed joint appeals with the Chofetz Chaim and R. Chaim Ozer Grodzinski. Later years faced Soviet restrictions (only flour parcels allowed, high customs, risk to recipients); the Rebbe continued organizing via Riga and Berlin centers.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

In a short time of about twenty-six days something was accomplished that at first seemed impossible… 28 train cars of baked matzos and 5,689 parcels of Passover flour… — Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929) ^[31]

Chapter 27: The Journey to the United States for the Benefit of Russian Jews

Covers the Rebbe’s 1929–1930 visit to America (and brief stop in Eretz Yisrael). Primary goal was to mobilize public opinion and institutions for Russian Jewry. Meetings with the Union of Orthodox Rabbis; limited practical success because the Wall Street crash intervened. Contemporary press coverage and coded letters from remaining rabbis in the USSR are included.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yechezkel Feigin | Shmaryahu Gurary | Union of Orthodox Rabbis | R. Moshe Zev Margolies

Significant quotations

The general matters with which the Rebbe is occupied for the benefit of our brothers living in our country… require and force a journey of the Rebbe himself to the United States. — Yechezkel Feigin, 25 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) ^[32]

Chapter 28: Liquidation of the NEP

Describes Stalin’s end of the New Economic Policy (NEP) from 1929/30 onward. Independent handicrafts and petty trade—the remaining sources of livelihood for observant Jews—were eliminated. Sabbath observers were barred from state factories. Some managed cooperative *artels* or night-watchman jobs; most sank into extreme poverty. Letters from Anash (including Leah Beila Levin) illustrate the desperation.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Leah Beila Levin | Alter Shneur Zalman Gitlin | Shaul Brook | Yevsektsiya

Significant quotations

Meanwhile the economic situation in Russia worsened greatly, especially for Sabbath-observing Jews… the sources of livelihood of the observant Jews were wiped out. ^[33]

Chapter 29: The Famine

Covers the catastrophic famine of 1932–33 (and continuing hardship). Hundreds of letters reached R. Israel Jacobson describing near-starvation; observant Jews were among the first victims. The Rebbe organized emergency “aid for the hungry” funds and Torgsin remittances. Graphic contemporary accounts are quoted.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

For seven or eight years I have been separated from you… now necessity forces me to write a request… for almost a full year we have suffered actual starvation… — Dov Ber Babrov, 4 Shevat 5693 (1932–1933) ^[34]

Chapter 30: The Rebbe’s Efforts to Secure Support

Despite the Great Depression choking American fundraising, the Rebbe continued intense personal efforts throughout the famine years (1931–33). He traveled to Paris and Warsaw, incurred large private debts, and sent whatever funds he could raise (mainly via Torgsin). Contemporary letters describe his physical and emotional exhaustion from the work.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Shlomo Yosef Zevin | Menachem Mendel Rothstein | Yechezkel Feigin | Torgsin

Significant quotations

You have no concept at all of how much soul-pain and grief I suffered and continue to suffer… I began working for their benefit without rest… the support is not at all in proportion to the labor. — Rebbe Rayatz to R. Zamszky, late Iyar 5693 (1932–1933) ^[35]

Chapter 31: Founding of the “Aid Committee” in Paris and Poland

In 1933 the Rebbe established formal aid committees in Paris (with Baron de Gunzburg, R. Eisenstadt and others) and in Warsaw/Poland (jointly with Polish rebbes and communal leaders). A large Warsaw conference in 5694 (1933–1934) issued a joint call; thousands of parcels were subsequently sent.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

One of the reasons I came to Poland was to enlist the large Jewish community of Poland to stand ready to help our brothers in Russia… ^[36]

Chapter 32: Sending Money to Russia

Explains the official exchange rate (≈1.94 rubles per dollar) versus the black-market rate (5–10 rubles). Direct bank or postal transfers therefore destroyed most of the value. Unofficial channels organized by R. Israel Gurary, R. Shmaryahu Gurary and others delivered 5–8.5 rubles per dollar while minimizing risk to recipients.

Individuals and groups

Israel Gurary | Shmaryahu Gurary | Israel Jacobson | Meir Gorkov

Significant quotations

Those who send their money to their relatives through the official bank or post do two evils… the government forces them to exchange it at the official rate… — Israel Gurary, 1931 ^[37]

Chapter 33: Food and Clothing Parcels

Because cash transfers were dangerous and inefficient, the main practical aid became food and clothing parcels (butter, smoked meat, sugar, etc.) sent via Riga. Price lists were circulated; R. Moshe Gurary and R. Israel Jacobson coordinated the American side.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Shmaryahu Gurary | Moshe Gurary | Israel Jacobson

Significant quotations

One of the ways of help they request is to send them parcels of foodstuffs via the post… especially kosher meat… and fats such as butter… ^[38]

Chapter 34: The Torgsin Stores

From roughly 1932 the Soviet government opened “Torgsin” stores that sold goods only for foreign currency. Relatives abroad could send dollars to a Torgsin address; the recipient received equivalent goods at world prices. This became the preferred method until the stores were closed at the end of 1935.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Meir Gorkov | Israel Jacobson | Torgsin

Significant quotations

Send me twenty shekels to the address written on the margin… it is a store the government opened for anyone who comes with foreign currency… — Meir Gorkov, Adar 5692 (1931–1932) ^[39]

Chapter 35: Return to Sending Parcels

After the closure of Torgsin (end of 1935) the network reverted to ordinary food and clothing parcels. Committees in Paris, Riga and Tel Aviv (Gurary brothers + Eliezer Krasik) continued the work until the outbreak of war interrupted the routes.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Shneur Zalman Schneersohn | Eliezer Krasik | Mordechai Chefetz | Shamai Vigan

Significant quotations

Everyone knows that after the closing of the Torgsin the sending of food and clothing parcels is a question of life and existence for a large part of our brothers in Russia. — Rebbe Rayatz, 14 Elul 5696 (1935–1936) ^[40]

Chapter 36: Continuation of the Struggle for Religion in Russia

Even after leaving the USSR the Rebbe continued directing the underground work through daring emissaries. Chief among them was R. Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik (“Zhuravitzer”), who traveled as a wandering preacher, founded secret chadarim, study groups and mikvaot, and recruited children for the underground yeshivas. The Rebbe also maintained constant coded correspondence encouraging fixed Torah study, Chassidus and farbrengens. Local reports from Moscow, Kharkov, Kiev, Rostov and elsewhere document the continued spiritual activity.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik (Zhuravitzer) | Shaul Brook | Binyamin Gorodetsky | Tomchei Temimim

Significant quotations

If I had twenty men like him I would overturn the country. “Ven ich volt hobn tzvantsik Yankelekh volt ich iberkern Russland.” — Rebbe Rayatz about R. Yaakov Maskalik ^[41]

Chapter 37: Intensification of Religious Persecution

A long anthology of 1928–1930 letters from dozens of towns describing the escalating campaign: closure and confiscation of synagogues, sealing of mikvaot, arrests of teachers and yeshiva students, forced signatures renouncing teaching, prohibitions on shechita, and pressure to eat chametz on Passover. Yevsektsiya and later the secret police led the drive. Includes the Rebbe’s 1929 call for a public fast signed with the Chofetz Chaim and R. Chaim Ozer.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The condition of our brothers the children of Israel in Russia and Ukraine is dreadful beyond measure… nearly three million Jewish souls are in distress… the Yevsektsiya seeks to uproot the Torah and erase the name of Heaven… ^[42]

Chapter 38: The State of the Mikvaot

In 1924–1930 the Soviet authorities, primarily through the Yevsektsiya, systematically confiscated, sealed or destroyed the remaining mikvaot in virtually every town, after earlier war-time destruction and post-war reconstruction efforts (supported by the Rebbe). A detailed 1928 alphabetical survey compiled from letters of ~150 towns documents the situation: many mikvaot closed for “repairs,” taken over by the municipal bathhouse authority (which raised prices prohibitively or sealed them), or simply destroyed. Local Jews raised partial funds and sought modest aid from abroad via the Rebbe’s network; the Rebbe continued sending encouragement and small sums. By the early 1930s almost all public mikvaot had been eliminated, forcing reliance on secret or temporary facilities.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

They invalidate mikvaot in every place, and there are also many decrees to close synagogues. Perhaps it would be worthwhile for them to decree a public fast among you on the troubles of Israel. — Yaakov Maskalik, 1928 ^[43]

The mikvaot: When years were normal, family purity was fully observed and money was available… Now this question stands in our world with full force… from one side the economic situation is so difficult… and from the other side the attitude of much of the new generation to the whole principle of family purity has also changed… — Shlomo Yosef Zevin’s 1927 survey ^[44]

Chapter 39: Persecution of the Rabbis and Those Who Serve in Holiness

From the early years of Soviet rule the authorities (initially via the Yevsektsiya, later the GPU/NKVD) targeted rabbis and religious functionaries with personal vilification, heavy taxes, forced resignations, eviction from their homes, confiscation of property, exile and, later, mass arrests, imprisonment and executions. The chapter focuses on 1930 and surrounding years with concrete cases (e.g., R. Alexander Sender Yudasin of Krivoy Rog, R. Menachem Mendel Hilbitz of Zembin, R. Leib Hillel Gluskin of Znamenka, the mass arrest of ~30 rabbis and activists in Minsk after an American visitor publicized conditions). The Rebbe continued to intervene from abroad and to urge support for the remaining rabbis.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The reports coming from Russia from the rabbis and those who serve in holiness are shocking, and they inform that the condition of the rabbis there has already descended to a level below which there is nothing… their bread is broken, they are expelled from their dwellings, taxes and levies are imposed upon them in sums that cannot be paid… — Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) ^[45]

In particular in recent times when the sale of bread is only by cards for those who have work and trade, the rabbis… and the elderly who study Torah are hungry for bread without any exaggeration and the situation is terrible and dreadful. — Rebbe Rayatz, 10 Menachem Av 5689 (1928–1929) ^[45]

Chapter 40: The Lishentsy (Those Deprived of Rights)

Rabbis, shochtim, melamdim and other religious functionaries were classified as “lishentsy” (deprived of civic rights) because spiritual work was not recognized as “labor.” Consequences included loss of food ration cards, eviction from nationalized housing, denial of medical care, forced manual labor (wood-chopping etc.), and general social ostracism. The status made normal life nearly impossible and was used to pressure them to resign their posts.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Those deprived of rights, that is, they have no food cards and no means to buy in the collective stores. — Rebbe Rayatz, 7 Nisan 5690 (1929–1930) ^[46]

Chapter 41: Support for the Rabbis of Russia

From exile the Rebbe organized systematic aid for rabbis, yeshiva heads, melamdim and shochtim: food/clothing parcels or Torgsin credits, help for prisoners and exiles, emigration assistance, and support for their children. He sought to establish committees in America, Poland and elsewhere, issued public appeals, and maintained detailed lists of remaining rabbis and mikvaot so that limited funds could be directed where most needed.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Menachem Mendel Rothstein | Chaim Ozer Grodzinski | Agudat ha-Rabbanim | Va'ad HaEzra

Significant quotations

From the first hour that the question of the holy vessels in Russia was born, we have not ceased to occupy ourselves with it… the only way to solve this question is through the rabbis abroad… every rabbi in a town or study hall should take upon himself to send one parcel for the rabbis of Russia via Torgsin… — Rebbe Rayatz, 5692 (1931–1932) ^[47]

Chapter 42: The Approach to Litvinov

In late 1933, when U.S. recognition of the USSR was imminent and Foreign Commissar Maxim Litvinov visited America, the Rebbe coordinated a political campaign. Letters and telegrams were sent to American Jewish leaders and senators (Borah, King, Adler, Dickstein etc.) requesting that the negotiations include relief for Soviet Jewry. A detailed memorandum signed by R. Alter, R. Chaim Ozer Grodzinski, R. Levin and representatives of Agudat Israel, the liberal rabbis and the Jewish Agency demanded: no closure of religious schools, no ban on Hebrew, permission for rabbis to emigrate, food rations for clergy, no closure of synagogues, no ban on shechita or circumcision.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

It is important for us to use this occasion for the benefit of our brothers in Russia… the main thing is to ease the decree of emigration… and for those who cannot leave, to ease their condition so that the right to bread and food from the government stores is not taken from them. — Rebbe Rayatz, 1933–34 ^[48]

Chapter 43: Mass Arrests of Chabad People

From 1935 onward the secret police conducted simultaneous night-time round-ups of 10–20 Chabad hasidim in a single locality so that none could warn the others. The charge of belonging to the “Schneersohn movement” or participating in underground yeshivas, illegal minyanim or 19 Kislev farbrengens was sufficient for arrest, exile or worse. One example is the 1935 Malakhovka (near Moscow) operation; R. Zalman Kornitzer managed to escape and warn others by denying his identity.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

1) You studied in the yeshiva of Schneersohn and taught others his teachings. 2) You prayed in an illegal minyan… 3) You helped the prisoners, the hasidim of Schneersohn… 4) You organized a farbrengen on 19 Kislev… — the interrogation of Yechiel Michel Rapoport ^[49]

Chapter 44: Agents of the Secret Police

The GPU/NKVD systematically pressured arrested Chabad activists to become informers by means of solitary confinement, sleep deprivation, bright lights, insects and threats of death. Most refused. One former Chabad hasid ultimately broke under a death sentence and thereafter traveled from town to town denouncing others; his activities are described in later chapters.

Individuals and groups

Simcha Gorodetsky | Raphael Nachman Cohen | NKVD

Significant quotations

Seeing that I admitted nothing and did not inform on anyone, their anger increased and they decided to punish me with the full severity of the law. They put me in solitary confinement for 37 days!… a tiny cell… a small piece of bread and a cup of water… and they took me for interrogation all night so that I could not even snatch a light sleep. — Simcha Gorodetsky ^[50]

Chapter 45: The Arrests in Moscow and Malakhovka

In the summer–autumn of 1935 a wave of arrests struck the Chabad community around Moscow and Malakhovka. Among those taken were R. Shneur Zalman Botman, R. Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik (Zhuravitzer), R. Eliezer Gorelik, R. Meir Avtzon, R. Abba Levin and others. Most were later exiled; R. Maskalik disappeared after further transfer and is presumed to have perished. Coded letters from Moscow and contemporary press reports (Morgen Journal) list the names. Survivors later recounted the interrogations and the subsequent exile in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Please inform our father and the Anash that they have begun to deal with the matter of “Vayeshev”… and among our brothers also the father of the orphans R. Yaakov b. Yehudit of Zhuravitz… ^[51]

Chapter 46: The Arrests in Other Towns

Throughout 1935–1939 simultaneous night arrests of Chabad hasidim continued in Rostov, Leningrad, Kharkov, Chernigov, Yekaterinoslav and many smaller towns. Documented waves include the Rosh Hashanah 5696 (1935–1936) arrests in Rostov (including Shamai Vigan and others, sentenced to three years hard labor in Siberia), the 5697 (1936–1937)–98 arrests in Leningrad that eliminated the remaining leadership of the religious community, the 5699 (1938–1939) arrests in Kharkov, and the arrest of R. Levi Yitzchak Schneerson in Yekaterinoslav. Many of those taken later perished in exile or were executed.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

On the night of the first day of Rosh Hashanah our brothers fell ill [were arrested]… while checking for chametz [house search]… ^[52]

Chapter 47: The Life of Chabad People Underground

Those who learned they were being sought lived in constant flight: sleeping in forests on the outskirts of Moscow, moving from village to village, or going into deep hiding. Memoirs of R. Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin and others describe weeks of sleeping in the woods, the terror of every noise, and the difficulty of maintaining any communal or family life. Many who remained free continued secret study and farbrengens until they too were caught.

Individuals and groups

Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin | Zalman Shimon Dvorkin | Menachem Mendel Dubrovsky | Nissan Nemanov

Significant quotations

Life under underground conditions grew harder and harder. Certain people revealed that all our young men and boys were listed with them and it was likely they would arrest us all… — Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin ^[53]

Chapter 48: The War and the Flight to Central Asia

When Germany invaded in June 1941, Jews (including Chabad hasidim) fled the western border regions toward the interior and especially Central Asia. Long, dangerous journeys by train and boat brought large numbers to Samarkand and Tashkent. Memoirs recount bombings, hunger, travel on the Sabbath under conditions of pikuach nefesh, and the eventual concentration of the surviving Chabad community in Uzbekistan.

Individuals and groups

Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin | Yehuda Leib Levin | Binyamin Gorodetsky | Mendel Smordinsky

Significant quotations

When the Germans entered Russia, the authorities began building shelters… every night at ten o’clock a German plane appeared and bombed the city… those who had the means left everything behind and tried to flee to the distant regions… most of the Jews fled to Central Asia, Tashkent and Samarkand… — Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin ^[54]

Chapter 49: The Famine in Samarkand

The sudden influx of tens of thousands of refugees into Samarkand in the winter of 1941–42 produced catastrophic famine and epidemics (typhus, malaria). Daily bread rations were only 400 grams, obtained only after hours or nights of waiting; local toughs often seized the bread. Bodies of those who died of starvation lay unburied in the streets. Chabad activists organized a chevra kadisha, hospital visitation by women who brought food, free soup kitchens and mutual aid. Approximately ten prominent Anash and many women and children perished.

Individuals and groups

Yehuda Leib Levin | Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin | Menachem Mendel Deutsch | Binyamin Gorodetsky

Significant quotations

In Samarkand we met the famine face to face. Thousands of refugees streamed there and the authorities were unable to feed all these masses. They introduced strict rationing of bread, and each person was allotted no more than four hundred grams a day… — Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin ^[55]

Chapter 50: Sending Parcels through the Rebbe’s Efforts

From New York the Rebbe continued to organize Passover aid (matzah and “maot chitim”) and year-round parcels for the refugees in Central Asia and the remaining Jews in European Russia. He appealed to the Joint Distribution Committee, American rabbinic bodies, Agudat Israel and others, and coordinated shipments via Tehran and the Land of Israel. Lists of addresses were compiled so that parcels could reach specific families.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Ephraim Eliezer Yolles | Joint Distribution Committee | Agudat Israel

Significant quotations

This year nothing has been done to send help to the Jews in Russia for the needs of Passover… tens of thousands of families will remain without matzah on the Passover… the only advice is to send them help in cash… — Rebbe Rayatz to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942) ^[56]

Chapter 51: Yeshiva Tomchei Temimim Lubavitch

Tomchei Temimim was founded in Elul 1897 in Lubavitch by the Rebbe Rashab and continued under his son the Rebbe Rayatz. It comprised a main yeshiva for older students (zal), intermediate shiurim, and younger cheder classes, with branches in Zembin, Kublicz, Dokshitz, Nevel, Horodishch, Babinovichi and Shezedrin. A branch (“Torat Emet”) was opened in Hebron in 1912. The First World War forced the Rebbe and his family to leave Lubavitch for Rostov in 1916; the yeshiva itself remained in Lubavitch under increasing hardship until its later relocation.

Individuals and groups

Shalom DovBer Schneersohn | Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Tomchei Temimim | Shlomo Zalman Havlin

Significant quotations

Yeshiva Tomchei Temimim Lubavitch was founded in Elul 5657 (1896–1897) and existed for twenty years in the town of Lubavitch, with branches in Zembin, Kublicz, Dokshitz, Nevel, Horodishch, Babinovichi and Shezedrin. ^[57]

Chapter 52: Transfer of the Yeshiva to Kremenchug and Orel

As the German front approached Lubavitch in 1918 and economic conditions collapsed, the Rebbe Rashab ordered the yeshiva transferred to Kremenchug. Younger students (cheder and shiurim) went first via Orel; the older zal students followed amid wartime chaos, arrests as suspected spies, and interrupted rail lines. Some groups were delayed for months in Orel, Kharkov and elsewhere before reaching Kremenchug.

Individuals and groups

Shalom DovBer Schneersohn | Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yehoshua Arash | Shalom Kuratin | Eliezer Kaplan

Significant quotations

In Lubavitch a great uproar arose from the approach of the Germans, and the cost of living also rose greatly… and there is no money with them… they decided to leave Lubavitch for the two reasons above, and after exchange of telegrams… I wrote them that they should transfer to Kremenchug… — Rebbe Rashab, 28 Adar 5678 (1917–1918) ^[58]

Chapter 53: Adventures on the Road and the Yeshiva in Kharkov (1918)

One group of students was arrested en route near Poltava, falsely accused of espionage, and nearly shot before local hasidim intervened. Another group was stranded in Kharkov for the entire summer of 1918 and continued studies there under temporary supervision before proceeding to Kremenchug. Local Anash in Kharkov provided housing and support.

Individuals and groups

Baruch Friedman | Shalom Kuratin | Yaakov Otaysker | Zalman Shimon Dvorkin

Chapter 54: The Last Group Leaves Lubavitch

A third group reached only Smolensk, learned of the Rebbe’s preference that the older students remain in Lubavitch if possible, and returned. The final departure from Lubavitch took place toward the end of Menachem Av 5678 (1917–1918); remaining staff hid valuables and left with heavy hearts, hoping the exile would be temporary.

Individuals and groups

Israel Jacobson | Shmuel Gronem Esterman | Eliezer Kaplan | Shalom Kuratin

Chapter 55: The Yeshiva in Kremenchug (1918–1930)

From late 1918 until Iyar 1930 the main younger divisions of Tomchei Temimim operated in Kremenchug under the overall direction of the Rebbes in Rostov. Local benefactors (Gurary, Krichevsky families) supplied buildings; mashpi’im and mashgichim included R. Shalom Kuratin, R. Menachem Mendel Gribov, R. Israel Noach Belinitzky and others. Peak enrollment reached ~120 children. The branch was repeatedly searched by the Yevsektsiya and finally closed in 1930 when R. Gribov was arrested; remaining students were dispersed to other underground locations.

Individuals and groups

Menachem Mendel Gribov | Israel Noach Belinitzky | Meir Avtzon | Benzion Maroz | Yehuda Eber

Significant quotations

As the pressure to close the yeshiva in Kremenchug grew, the Rebbe ordered that the number of students—then forty—be reduced… and the class was split, and my class went to Polotsk together with the rosh yeshiva R. Yechezkel Himmelfarb. — Aharon Kahanov ^[59]

Chapters נז–נט: Branches in Kherson, Alexandri and Harol (1917–1920)

Short-lived branches operated in Kherson (under R. Eliezer Tchitcherskier and later R. Mordechai Perlov), the agricultural colony Alexandri (ten older students for one summer under R. Gershon Chen), and Harol (about forty younger students under R. Yehoshua Arash). These were temporary wartime or post-war arrangements that closed with the intensification of civil-war chaos and later Soviet pressure.

Individuals and groups

Eliezer Tchitcherskier | Mordechai Perlov | Gershon Chen | Yehoshua Arash | Elazar Moshe Madeievsky

Chapter 56: The Yeshiva in Rostov (1920–1921)

After the passing of the Rebbe Rashab (2 Nisan 5680 (1919–1920)) the Rebbe Rayatz transferred the older students from Kremenchug to Rostov so that the yeshiva would be “around me.” R. Shmuel Gronem Esterman served as acting director and R. Yitzchak Goldin as his deputy. The students arrived in rags; the Rebbe personally supervised their material and spiritual needs. The branch functioned for less than a year before further Soviet pressure forced further dispersal.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Shmuel Gronem Esterman | Yitzchak Goldin | Shlomo Chaim Kesselman

Significant quotations

After Pesach he began to say, “I want Tomchei Temimim to be around me.” Tomchei Temimim was then in Kremenchug… When he decided to bring Tomchei Temimim to Rostov, R. Shmuel Gronem was appointed acting director… — Yitzchak Goldin ^[60]

Chapter 57: The State of the Mikvaot

Details the systematic confiscation and closure of ritual baths (mikvaot) across Soviet Russia, especially intensifying in the mid-to-late 1920s (תרפ"ה–תר"ץ). After earlier wartime destruction and postwar reconstruction efforts (supported by the Rebbe Rayatz via funds and letters), authorities seized remaining public mikvaot, often attached to bathhouses under municipal control. Reports from approximately 150 towns in summer 1928 (compiled from letters to the Rebbe) describe closures due to high fees, lack of heating, structural decay, poverty preventing repairs, and ideological pressure. Many communities built or maintained underground/private mikvaot at great personal risk and cost; the Rebbe and his emissaries (e.g., R. Yaakov Zakhar, R. Binyamin Grodetsky) coordinated limited aid. Later years saw further closures, arrests of those maintaining them, and reliance on secret mikvaot into the 1930s.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The mikvaot: In normal years family purity was fully observed… Now the question stands in our world with full force… In one city the bathhouse burned, in the second it was closed by the government (via the Yevsektsiya), in the third it collapsed from age, in the fourth it was destroyed in the pogroms… — Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927) ^[44]

They are invalidating mikvaot everywhere, and also many decrees to close synagogues. Perhaps it is worthwhile to decree a public fast among you over the troubles of Israel. — Yaakov Zakhar letter, 5688 (1927–1928) ^[43]

Chapter 58: Persecutions Against the Rabbis and Those Serving in Holiness

Surveys the escalating campaign against rabbis and religious functionaries from the early Soviet years, intensifying in 1929–1933 (תר"ץ–תרצ"ג). Methods included personal smears, deprivation of rights, crushing taxes (often leading to arrest for non-payment), expulsion from homes, confiscation of property, and forced resignations. Examples include the 1930 mass arrest of ~30 rabbis and activists in Minsk (following a visit by American Rabbi Glazer), individual exiles (e.g., R. Alexander Sander Yudasin of Krivoi Rog, R. Menachem Mendel Hilkevitz of Zemlin), and arrests linked to mikvaot or underground teaching. The Rebbe Rayatz, then abroad, organized diplomatic interventions (telegrams to U.S. officials, etc.); some releases occurred, but many remained imprisoned or emigrated later.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The reports coming from Russia from the rabbis and those who serve in holiness are terrifying… Their situation has already descended to a level from which there is no lower… They are given over to shame and disgrace, their livelihood is broken, they are expelled from their dwellings, taxes and imposts are imposed on them in amounts that it is impossible to pay… — Rebbe Rayatz letter, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) ^[45]

In particular in recent times when the sale of bread is only on ration cards to those with work and labor, the rabbis… who keep the watch of the holy and the elderly who study Torah are hungry for bread without any support, and the situation is terrible and dreadful. — Rebbe Rayatz, 10 Marcheshvan 5689 (1928–1929) ^[45]

Chapter 59: Lishentzes (Those Deprived of Rights)

Explains the status of “lishentzes” – citizens stripped of civil rights because religious work (rabbinate, ritual slaughter, teaching) was not recognized as productive labor. Consequences included exclusion from food ration cards, inability to live in nationalized housing, denial of medical care, forced unpaid labor (e.g., wood-cutting), and social stigma. Rabbis and shochetim were primary targets; many fled or went underground. Examples from letters of R. Israel Leib Lipschitz, R. Zalman Poizner, R. Nachman Dov Vichnin and others.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Israel Leib Lipschitz | Zalman Poizner | Nachman Dov Vichnin | Shmuel Notik

Significant quotations

Two things, the “living” from the books of rights and the accused of violating freedom – their translation in the language of the Yevsektsiya is: to take everything he has in the house and stand him naked as the day he was born and seat him in prison for dozens of months, and afterward send him to a place of exile for three years and more. — Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929) ^[46]

Chapter 60: Support for the Rabbis of Russia

Documents the Rebbe Rayatz’s extensive fundraising and organizational efforts (from the late 1920s into the 1930s) to aid rabbis, yeshiva heads, teachers and shochetim remaining in the USSR. Appeals to the Agudath Harabbanim of America, European rabbis (including R. Chaim Ozer Grodzinski), and individuals; proposals for systematic monthly packages via Torgsin; establishment of committees; compilation of lists of rabbis, shochetim and towns lacking mikvaot. Despite limited success and internal debates, the Rebbe continued personal interventions even while ill.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Chaim Ozer Grodzinski | Menachem Mendel Rothstein | Shlomo Yosef Zevin | Agudath Harabbanim

Significant quotations

Help is needed urgently without delay, both for the expenses of those who have the possibility of leaving the country, and to quiet the hunger of those who for the time being must remain in the country. — Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) ^[47]

Chapter 61: The Intervention with Litvinov

In late 1933–early 1934, as the U.S. prepared to recognize the USSR, the Rebbe (then in Warsaw) organized a coordinated diplomatic effort timed with Foreign Commissar Maxim Litvinov’s visit to America. Telegrams and memoranda were sent to U.S. senators (Borah, King), Congressman Dickstein, Cyrus Adler and others, and a formal memorandum signed by leading rabbis and Jewish organizations demanded: non-closure of religious schools, permission for rabbis to emigrate, access to state food stores, non-closure of synagogues, and non-prohibition of shechita and circumcision. One concrete result was the later release of 23 border-crossing prisoners (detailed in chapter קיג).

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Maxim Litvinov | Chaim Ozer Grodzinski | Yaakov Rosenheim | Nahum Sokolow

Significant quotations

1. That the Soviet government not close the schools of the Orthodox; 2. That it not confiscate the Hebrew language and its literature; 3. That it permit the rabbis of Russia to emigrate abroad… — contemporary newspaper summary of the memorandum ^[48]

Chapter 62: Mass Arrests of Chabad Hasidim

From the mid-1930s (especially 1935 onward), the NKVD conducted coordinated nighttime raids arresting 10–20 Chabad hasidim at once to prevent warning others. Charges centered on affiliation with the “Chabad movement”: studying/teaching Chassidus, illegal prayer quorums, aiding prisoners and their families, and celebrating 19 Kislev. Examples include the 1935 Malakhovka/Moscow roundup (Botman, Goldin, Gorelik, Avtzon, Levin and others) and earlier Moscow incidents. Many were exiled; some escaped after tip-offs.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

1) You studied in Schneersohn’s yeshiva and also taught others his teachings. 2) You prayed in an illegal minyan forbidden by law. 3) You helped prisoners, Schneersohn’s hasidim… 4) You organized a farbrengen… on 19 Kislev. — Yechiel Michel Rappoport’s account of his 1939 arrest ^[49]

Chapter 63: Agents of the Secret Police

Describes NKVD pressure on arrested hasidim to become informers, revealing names of other Chabad members in order to dismantle the underground network. Most refused despite severe torture (solitary confinement, sleep deprivation, extreme lighting, vermin). One former hasid (under death sentence) eventually collaborated and traveled identifying hasidim for arrest. R. Raphael Nachman Cohen’s refusal led to a three-year exile.

Individuals and groups

Raphael Nachman Cohen | Simcha Gorodetsky | NKVD

Significant quotations

Seeing that I admitted nothing and informed on no one – their anger and wrath increased and they decided to punish me with the full severity of the law. They put me in solitary for 37 days… — Simcha Gorodetsky ^[50]

Chapter 64: The Arrests in Moscow and Malakhovka

Focuses on the 1935 wave of arrests in the Moscow area, particularly the Chabad settlement in Malakhovka. Triggered in part by a collaborator, the NKVD arrested key figures including R. Shneur Zalman Botman (who had taken over a minyan and property after his brother-in-law’s departure to Eretz Yisrael), R. Yitzchak Goldin, R. Eliezer Gorelik and son, R. Meir Avtzon, R. Abraham Aba Levin, R. Shlomo Matusof and others. Some (e.g., R. Abraham Drizin) escaped; most were sentenced to exile. R. Yaakov Zakhar disappeared after further transfer. Contemporary reports in foreign Yiddish press (Morgen Journal) listed the arrested and noted that some Jews cut their beards to avoid suspicion. The Rebbe’s secretariat in Warsaw received encrypted reports and coordinated limited aid.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Please inform our father and Anash that they have begun to deal with the matter of Parashat Vayeshev of Parashat Shishi… and among our brothers also the father of orphans R. Yaakov son of Yehudit of Zhuravitz… ^[61]

Chapter 65: Arrests in Other Towns

Details the continuation of mass and individual arrests of Chabad hasidim across Russia from 1935–1939 (תרצ"ה–תרצ"ט). Immediately after the Moscow/Malakhovka wave, a group was arrested in Rostov (including near the Rebbe Rashab’s ohel) on Rosh Hashanah 5696 (1935–1936); further arrests hit Kharkov (Purim 5699 (1938–1939), involving R. Avraham Baruch Pevzner, R. Nachum Yitzchak Pinson, R. Tzemach Gurevitz), Chernigov, Yekaterinoslav (including R. Levi Yitzchak Schneerson on 9 Nisan 5699 (1938–1939)), Leningrad (multiple waves in 5697 (1936–1937)–5698 (1937–1938) wiping out much of the Orthodox leadership), Yegoryevsk and other towns. Sentences typically ranged from three to ten years of hard labor in Siberia; some were executed. Encrypted letters and later memoirs (Shashunkin, Gorkov, Chitrik) document the scope.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Our friend Shamai has fallen ill and several more of Anash from our city… and they have been imprisoned for more than a month… and their families are literally perishing of hunger. — Chaim Padnas letter ^[52]

Chapter 66: Life of Chabad Hasidim in the Underground

Describes the clandestine existence of those who received advance warning and fled before arrest. Hasidim moved constantly between villages, slept in forests near Moscow, changed residences, and avoided known gathering places. R. Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin’s memoir recounts leaving Leningrad just in time (warning R. Elchanan Marozov and R. Yitzchak Raskin, who were later arrested and disappeared), sleeping in the woods for weeks in Elul, and the constant fear of night-time raids. Exile terms lengthened to ten years or more; correspondence was often forbidden. Many never returned.

Individuals and groups

Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin | Elchanan Dov Marozov | Yitzchak Raskin | Zalman Shimon Dvorkin | Nissan Nemanov

Significant quotations

The underground life became harder and harder. Certain people revealed in our ears that all our young men and boys are listed with them and it is near that they will arrest all of us… I decided that the time had come to leave Leningrad. — Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin, *Zikhronotai* ^[53]

Chapter 67: The War and the Flight to Central Asia

With the German invasion in summer 1941 (תש"א), Jews in the western border regions fled eastward; many Chabad hasidim reached Central Asia, concentrating in Samarkand and Tashkent. Memoirs (Shashunkin, Gorodetsky, others) recount frantic evacuations by train under bombardment, selling household goods at a loss, traveling for weeks, and arriving in Uzbekistan. Some groups waited until after Shabbat Bereshit before leaving Kharkov and other cities. Upon arrival the Rebbe Rayatz (in New York) sought news through Bukharan contacts and later corresponded via Eretz Yisrael.

Individuals and groups

Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin | Binyamin Gorodetsky | Yehuda Leib Levin | Mendel Smordinsky

Significant quotations

When the Germans invaded, the inhabitants of Russia began to flee from the border cities into the interior… The Jews fled mainly to the cities of Central Asia. Many Jews, among them Anash, then settled in the towns of Samarkand and Tashkent. ^[54]

Chapter 68: The Famine in Samarkand

Immediately upon the arrival of the refugees in early winter 5702 (1941), a severe famine struck Samarkand. Rations were limited to ~400 grams of bread per person; lines were chaotic and Uzbek locals sometimes seized supplies. Lack of sanitation led to typhus and other epidemics. Approximately ten leading hasidim died of hunger or disease in the first months, plus many women and children. R. Yehuda Leib Levin organized a Chevra Kadisha to bury the dead properly and, together with women’s groups, initiated hospital visits and food distribution that saved many lives. Conditions improved gradually by summer 5702 (1941–1942) as weaving and other trades were established; mutual aid remained strong.

Individuals and groups

Yehuda Leib Levin | Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin | Menachem Mendel Deutsch | Binyamin Gorodetsky

Significant quotations

In Samarkand we met the famine face to face. Thousands of refugees streamed there and the authorities were unable to feed all those multitudes… Obtaining the bread ration was a terrible nightmare. — Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin ^[55]

Chapter 69: Dispatch of Packages through the Rebbe’s Efforts

The Rebbe Rayatz’s first wartime priority was Passover needs. In Adar 5702 (1941–1942) he appealed urgently to the Joint Distribution Committee and dozens of rabbinical and communal bodies for cash aid (requesting at least 100,000 shekels) so that tens of thousands of Soviet Jewish families would not lack matzah. He coordinated telegrams to the Chief Rabbinate in Jerusalem, American Agudath Harabbanim, and others. Later years saw continued shipment of Passover packages via Tehran and Eretz Yisrael once address lists became available. The chapter closes the general narrative of Chabad life in the USSR and transitions to the dedicated section on the Tomchei Temimim network (chapters נא–צח).

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Ephraim Eliezer Yolles | Joint Distribution Committee

Significant quotations

This year nothing has been done to send help to the Jews in Russia for the needs of the Passover holiday… According to the situation, tens of thousands of families will remain without matzah… and the only solution is to send them help in cash. — Rebbe Rayatz appeal to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942) ^[56]

Chapter 70: Yeshiva Tomchei Temimim of Lubavitch

Brief historical overview of the founding of Tomchei Temimim in Elul 5657 (1896) in Lubavitch by the Rebbe Rashab, with early branches in towns such as Zembin, Kobylnik, Dokshitz, Nevel, Haradok, Babinovichi and Shchedrin. A Hebron branch (“Torat Emet”) opened in 5672 (1911–1912). The World War I crisis closed many branches; Turkish authorities forced the return of students from Hebron. The Rebbe Rashab and his son the Rebbe Rayatz labored to sustain the institution. In early 5676 (1915–1916) they left Lubavitch for Rostov, leaving the yeshiva temporarily isolated.

Individuals and groups

Shalom DovBer Schneersohn | Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Shlomo Zalman Havlin | Tomchei Temimim

Chapter 71: Transfer of the Yeshiva to Kremenchug and Ariel

In 5678 (1917–1918), with the German advance and Bolshevik takeover disrupting supplies and communications, the Rebbe Rashab ordered the transfer from Lubavitch to Kremenchug. Younger divisions (chedarim and shiurim) went first and stayed temporarily in Ariel; older students followed. Local benefactors (Krichevsky) provided buildings. Travel was hazardous.

Individuals and groups

Shalom DovBer Schneersohn | Yehuda Chitrik | Michael Yehuda Leib Cohen | Pinchas Krichevsky

Significant quotations

My father came to Lubavitch and related that the situation was extremely critical, that the German was about to enter Lubavitch… and he took all the students of the chedarim and shiurim with their teachers, and we traveled as far as the city of Ariel… — Michael Yehuda Leib Cohen ^[62]

Chapter 72: Adventures on the Way

Details the chaotic transfer of older students. Some groups were delayed or diverted; one party was falsely accused of espionage near Poltava, nearly executed, and rescued by local hasidim (including intervention by R. Tzvi Gurary). Communications with the Rebbe in Rostov were intermittent; some students remained temporarily in Lubavitch or other towns on the Rebbe’s instruction.

Individuals and groups

Israel Jacobson | Shalom Kuratin | Eliezer Kaplan | Tzvi Gurary | Mordechai Aharon Friedman

Chapter 73: The Yeshiva in Kharkov (5678 (1917–1918))

A group of students stranded in Kharkov for the summer of 5678 (1917–1918) continued studies there under temporary supervision (R. Baruch Friedman as mashgiach). Local Anash (including R. Yaakov Otaysker) provided housing and support in former Talmud Torah buildings. They remained until late summer when roads reopened and they proceeded to Kremenchug. Additional groups studied in Kharkov in later years.

Individuals and groups

Baruch Friedman | Shalom Kuratin | Yaakov Otaysker | Zalman Shimon Dvorkin

Chapter 74: The Last Group Leaves Lubavitch

A third group reached only Smolensk, learned of the Rebbe’s preference that older students remain in Lubavitch if possible, and returned. The final departure from Lubavitch took place toward the end of Menachem Av 5678 (1917–1918); remaining staff hid valuables and left with heavy hearts, hoping the exile would be temporary.

Individuals and groups

Israel Jacobson | Shmuel Gronem Esterman | Eliezer Kaplan | Shalom Kuratin

Chapter 75: The Yeshiva in Kremenchug (5678 (1917–1918)–5690 (1929–1930))

From late 5678 (1917–1918) until Iyar 5690 (1929–1930) the main younger divisions operated in Kremenchug under overall direction from Rostov. Local benefactors (Gurary, Krichevsky) supplied buildings; mashpi’im and mashgichim included R. Shalom Kuratin, R. Menachem Mendel Gribov, R. Israel Noach Belinitzky and others. Peak enrollment reached ~120 children. Repeatedly searched by the Yevsektsiya; finally closed in 5690 (1929–1930) when R. Gribov was arrested; remaining students dispersed to other underground locations.

Individuals and groups

Menachem Mendel Gribov | Israel Noach Belinitzky | Meir Avtzon | Benzion Maroz | Yehuda Eber

Significant quotations

As the pressure to close the yeshiva in Kremenchug grew, the Rebbe ordered that the number of students—then forty—be reduced… and the class was split, and my class went to Polotsk together with the rosh yeshiva R. Yechezkel Himmelfarb. — Aharon Kahanov ^[59]

Chapters נז–נט: Branches in Kherson, Alexandri and Harol (5677 (1916–1917)–5680 (1919–1920))

Short-lived branches operated in Kherson (under R. Eliezer Tchitcherskier and later R. Mordechai Perlov; up to ~50 students), the agricultural colony Alexandri (ten older students for one summer under R. Gershon Chen), and Harol (~40 younger students under R. Yehoshua Arash). These were temporary wartime or early-Soviet arrangements that closed amid civil-war chaos and later pressure.

Individuals and groups

Eliezer Tchitcherskier | Mordechai Perlov | Gershon Chen | Yehoshua Arash | Elazar Moshe Madeievsky

Chapter 76: The Yeshiva in Rostov (5680 (1919–1920)–5681 (1920–1921))

After the passing of the Rebbe Rashab (2 Nisan 5680 (1919–1920)) the Rebbe Rayatz transferred the older students from Kremenchug to Rostov so that the yeshiva would be “around me.” R. Shmuel Gronem Esterman served as acting director and R. Yitzchak Goldin as his deputy. The students arrived in rags; the Rebbe personally supervised their material and spiritual needs. The branch functioned for less than a year before further Soviet pressure forced further dispersal.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Shmuel Gronem Esterman | Yitzchak Goldin | Shlomo Chaim Kesselman

Significant quotations

After Pesach he began to say, “I want Tomchei Temimim to be around me.” Tomchei Temimim was then in Kremenchug… When he decided to bring Tomchei Temimim to Rostov, R. Shmuel Gronem was appointed acting director… — Yitzchak Goldin ^[60]

Chapter 77: The Yeshiva in Poltava (5681 (1920–1921)–5683 (1922–1923))

After the Rostov branch closed, most older students transferred to Poltava, where the yeshiva operated for nearly two years (until before Pesach 5683 (1922–1923)). Early arrivals included R. Zalman Shimon Dvorkin and others; local Anash (R. Shlomo Itkin, R. Shmuel Dobruskin) took on support. Mashpi’im included R. Shmuel Leib Levin and later R. Yechezkel Feigin. Students lived in extreme poverty (sleeping on tables and benches, wearing sackcloth), yet studied with great diligence in Nigleh and Chassidus. The Rebbe Rayatz sent letters of encouragement. The branch was raided by the Cheka/Yevsektsiya just before Pesach 5683 (1922–1923); younger students under 18 were ordered to leave.

Individuals and groups

Zalman Shimon Dvorkin | Yechezkel Feigin | Shmuel Leib Levin | Shlomo Itkin | Yehuda Eber

Significant quotations

After they arrested our Rebbe and confiscated all that was his, most of the yeshiva students in Rostov went to their homes… the great poverty that prevailed then in Rostov and the infectious diseases… precluded the possibility of continuing the yeshiva in Rostov. — Zalman Shimon Dvorkin ^[63]

Chapter 78: Transfer of the Yeshiva to Nevel, Kremenchug and Kharkov

Following the Poltava raid, students dispersed in small groups to Nevel, Kremenchug and Kharkov. In Nevel a group was arrested almost immediately. The Rebbe directed remaining students to gather in Kharkov for the summer of 5683 (1922–1923) under temporary arrangements. R. Yechezkel Feigin coordinated the moves.

Individuals and groups

Yechezkel Feigin | Israel Noach Belinitzky | Binyamin Gorodetsky

Chapters סג–סד: Branches in Vulabin and Homel (5681 (1920–1921)–5682 (1921–1922))

While the main body was in Poltava, local Anash opened short-lived branches in Vulabin (under R. Moshe Axelrod) and Homel (under R. Yechezkel Feigin and R. Israel Jacobson). Both were designated “Ma’arechet Tomchei Temimim of Lubavitch” and supported by local funds. The Homel branch faced rivalry with a Novardok group and later pressure from the Yevsektsiya.

Individuals and groups

Moshe Axelrod | Yechezkel Feigin | Israel Jacobson | Baruch Duchman

Chapter 79: Return of the Yeshiva to Rostov (5684 (1923–1924))

In Tishrei 5684 (1923–1924) the Rebbe Rayatz ordered the return of the older students to Rostov so the yeshiva would again be near him. Local communal figures with government connections secured a suitable building on Vorontsovska Street for students over 18. The branch operated only half a year before a search of the Rebbe’s home forced him (and the yeshiva) to leave Rostov.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yechezkel Feigin | Yehuda Eber | Nissan Nemanov

Chapter 80: Return to Kharkov and Nevel

After the Rebbe left Rostov for Leningrad, the central yeshiva moved back to Kharkov (and a parallel division to Nevel). A small group remained in Rostov temporarily to learn shechita. From summer 5684 (1923–1924) until 5689 (1928–1929) the main network operated primarily between Kharkov and Nevel under the overall direction of R. Yechezkel Feigin, with additional branches in Kremenchug, Ramen, Polotsk, Vitebsk and elsewhere.

Individuals and groups

Yechezkel Feigin | Israel Noach Belinitzky | Yehuda Eber

Chapter 81: The Yeshiva in Kharkov (5684 (1923–1924)–5689 (1928–1929))

The Kharkov branch functioned from summer 5684 (1923–1924) until late summer 5689 (1928–1929). Enrollment fluctuated (roughly 25–35 at times); mashgichim included R. Yehoshua Karp, R. Yitzchak Leib Neishuler and others. Older students were periodically transferred to Nevel. A 5688 (1927–1928) raid led to protocols against the hosts; the Rebbe protested via Prof. Haffkine. Studies continued underground (including a brief period in a village house) until final closure.

Individuals and groups

Yehoshua Karp | Yitzchak Leib Neishuler | Nissan Nemanov | Zalman Shimon Dvorkin

Chapter 82: The Yeshiva and Rabbinical Seminary in Nevel (5684 (1923–1924)–5689 (1928–1929))

From summer 5684 (1923–1924) the Nevel branch (and from 5685 (1924–1925) a dedicated “Beit Midrash for Rabbis and Shochetim”) became a major center. Directed by R. Yehuda Eber (rosh yeshiva/mashgiach) and R. Shmuel Levitin (seminary). Older students from Kharkov were transferred here in 5687 (1926–1927). Peak numbers reached ~70 in the older division. Closed in Kislev 5689 (1928–1929) amid arrests (including R. Levitin, who was later exiled to Siberia). The seminary aimed to produce rabbis and shochetim under severe material hardship.

Individuals and groups

Yehuda Eber | Shmuel Levitin | Yechezkel Feigin | Meir Avtzon | David Okunov

Significant quotations

The Beit Midrash for Rabbis exists entirely on the support of the budget. Its purpose is to train and appoint rabbis and shochetim… From lack of money we are forced to reject many who wish to be accepted. The expenses of the institution are 50 rubles per person per month… ^[64]

Chapter 83: The Yeshiva in Polotsk (5686 (1925–1926)–5689 (1928–1929))

The Polotsk branch of Tomchei Temimim opened at the beginning of summer 5686 (1925–1926) and continued until late winter 5689 (1928–1929). It was founded by R. Avraham Dreizin (Mayorer) who brought a small group of students (including R. Israel Shimon Kalmanson, R. Zalman Koratin and R. Dovber Chefetz) from Nevel. R. Yechezkel Himelstein later replaced Dreizin when the latter moved to open the Vitebsk branch. The mashpia in the town and yeshiva throughout was R. Shlomo Chaim Kesselman (sent by the Rebbe Rayatz already in 5682 (1921–1922)). Peak numbers reached around fifty students. In late winter 5689 (1928–1929) the branch was closed; Kesselman was arrested (his second arrest in Polotsk) and later exiled to Poltava, where he continued teaching small groups of students. Many students later listed Polotsk among their places of study.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

In Tomchei Temimim, thank God, another branch was added in Polotsk. The shiur is given there by Avraham Dreizin… with students numbering about fifty or more. — letters of 5686 (1925–1926) ^[65]

Chapter 84: The Yeshiva in Romny (5685 (1924–1925)–5688 (1927–1928))

A local cheder had existed in Romny since 5676 (1915–1916), but a full Tomchei Temimim branch opened in 5685 (1924–1925) and operated until the beginning of summer 5688 (1927–1928). R. Yaakov Gorary served as rosh yeshiva; R. Yechezkel Greenfess provided early support. Students (including R. David Okunov, R. Levi Yitzchak Shapiro and R. Nachum Volasov) lived and studied in the synagogue. The branch was closed after repeated raids and protocols. In 5688 (1927–1928) R. Gorary was sentenced to five months of forced labor (later mitigated by an amnesty in one case). Contemporary reports in Sha’arei Zion noted the trial of the local shochet for maintaining a cheder.

Individuals and groups

Yaakov Gorary | Yechezkel Greenfess | David Okunov | Levi Yitzchak Shapiro | Nachum Volasov

Significant quotations

For three years this enterprise (yeshiva) has existed here. In the first year they began opposing it… This year in Tevet they again made a protocol… and after all the efforts they sentenced me to five months of forced labor. — R. Yaakov Gorary, summer 5688 (1927–1928) ^[66]

Chapter 85: The Yeshiva in Astashkov (5686 (1925–1926))

A short-lived branch operated in the small town of Astashkov (near Nikolaev) in 5686 (1925–1926) under the maggid shiur R. Yitzchak Leib Neishuler. It is mentioned in several contemporary letters and in students’ later questionnaires, but little detailed information survives. By the following year Neishuler himself is recorded in Kharkov and the town no longer appears among active branches.

Individuals and groups

Yitzchak Leib Neishuler | Benzion Shemtov | Nissan Nemanov

Chapter 86: The Yeshiva in Vitebsk (5687 (1926–1927)–5691 (1930–1931))

The Vitebsk branch opened at the beginning of summer 5687 (1926–1927) when R. Avraham Dreizin arrived from Polotsk with a group of students. It rapidly became the central yeshiva in Russia, peaking at about ninety students in summer 5688 (1927–1928) and operating in several local synagogues (including the Chabad shul and women’s galleries). R. Yehuda Eber gave shiurim; other mashgichim and mashpi’im included R. Zalman Levitin, R. Nachum Labkovsky, R. Elchanan Marozov and R. Rafael Cohen. After the closure of Nevel (Kislev 5689 (1928–1929)) and Polotsk, additional students and staff transferred here. Studies continued under extreme secrecy (doors and curtains closed, learning by weak lamp light). The branch was finally closed in late winter 5691 (1930–1931) after a raid around Purim; students under eighteen were expelled while older individuals faced multi-year sentences of hard labor or exile. Many students later listed Vitebsk among their places of study.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

In Vitebsk for the summer period, ninety students; and if not for the difficult situation there would be many more. — R. Yechezkel Feigin, summer 5688 (1927–1928) ^[67]

The order of study began every day at 4:30 in the morning. At the appointed hour all the students were already in place. — a student’s memoir ^[68]

Chapter 87: The Yeshiva in Leningrad (5689 (1928–1929)–5692 (1931–1932))

After the closure of the Nevel branch, a group of older students transferred to Leningrad in winter 5689 (1928–1929) and studied there for about one year (until winter 5690 (1929–1930)). A smaller group continued from summer 5691 (1930–1931) until winter 5692 (1931–1932). R. Nissan Nemanov served as mashpia. The branch operated in a synagogue under conditions of extreme secrecy. In winter 5690 (1929–1930) Nemanov was arrested on the street and sentenced to three years’ exile (later reduced); R. Shimon Lazarov (rabbi of the Chabad community) and his son were also arrested and sentenced to hard labor. Contemporary reports in Sha’arei Zion and private letters describe the arrests, the exile of Nemanov and Lazarov to Arkhangelsk, and the general atmosphere of fear. After the Vitebsk closure a further small group studied briefly in Leningrad until the Rebbe Rayatz (then in Riga) instructed them to find work and attempt to leave Russia.

Individuals and groups

Nissan Nemanov | Shimon Lazarov | Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin | Israel Shimon Kalmanson | Yehuda Eber

Significant quotations

When it became known to the authorities that there was an underground yeshiva in Leningrad, they arrested R. Nissan in the middle of the street and exiled him for three years. — R. Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin ^[69]

Chapter 88: The Yeshiva in Yekaterinoslav (5689 (1928–1929)–5691 (1930–1931))

The branch opened in the middle of winter 5689 (1928–1929) after students fled the closure of Nevel and later Kharkov. It operated until the middle of winter 5690 (1929–1930), after which a smaller group continued for about another year. Mashgichim included R. Menachem Mendel Futerfas and R. Nachum Labkovsky. Students (including R. David Okunov and R. Avraham Yehoshua Koratin) studied in synagogue women’s galleries. In Tevet/Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) the police raided, sealed the synagogue and the students fled at night. Local support came in part from the town shochet R. Avraham Abba Regulim, who was later arrested and died in prison. After the main branch closed, a small cheder for younger boys continued under Regulim’s care for a time.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 89: The Yeshiva in Zvil (Novograd-Volynsk) (5688 (1927–1928)–5689 (1928–1929))

In winter 5688 (1927–1928) R. Chaim Shaul Brook, with the Rebbe Rayatz’s approval, went to Zvil (Novograd-Volynsk) to open a yeshiva. It began with nine students and grew to eighteen (plus a separate cheder of twelve). Studies took place in a large synagogue; Brook taught while wearing tallit and tefillin to appear as a private worshipper. Repeated visits by Yevsektsiya officials led to protocols, a trial, and Brook’s eventual sentence of nine months’ forced labor followed by five years’ exile to his hometown of Ilyino. The students were forced to move several times (including to an attic and the chazzan’s house) before the branch closed in summer 5689 (1928–1929). Brook later described the constant fear, night-time interrogations and the physical hardship of the period in his memoirs.

Individuals and groups

Chaim Shaul Brook | Aharon Chazan | Yaakov Maskalik

Significant quotations

I received a letter from my friend R. Mordechai Eliezer… asking me to travel to Zvil… to serve as ram and mashpia… I wrote to the Rebbe Rayatz… He answered that it was very worthwhile to go there. — R. Chaim Shaul Brook’s memoirs ^[70]

Chapter 90: The Yeshiva in Homel, Kherson and Odessa (5689 (1928–1929)–5690 (1929–1930))

After the closure of Polotsk in late winter 5689 (1928–1929), one group of students (including R. Israel Shimon Kalmanson) went to Kherson and later to Odessa, while another group under R. Yechezkel Himelstein went first to Homel and then to Kherson. In Odessa the students studied throughout 5690 (1929–1930) under occasional supervision by R. Menachem Mendel Futerfas and R. Yaakov Gurkov. A minor incident at a mixed bathing beach (students deliberately avoiding the mixed section) led to their detention by the NKVD and forced them to leave the city. The Homel group was also expelled after a short time. Students then transferred to Vitebsk, which was then the central yeshiva.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 91: General Summary of the Tomchei Temimim Network (until 5691 (1930–1931))

Contemporary letters and a 5689 (1928–1929) budget report by the Rebbe’s committee describe the network at its height. In 5686 (1925–1926)–5687 (1926–1927) branches operated in Kharkov, Kremenchug, Romny, Nevel, Polotsk, Astashkov and elsewhere, with total enrollment reaching several hundred. By summer 5688 (1927–1928) Nevel alone had several hundred students plus a rabbinical seminary; Kharkov, Kiev, Vitebsk and Polotsk were also major centers. A 5689 (1928–1929) budget listed 620 students across roughly a dozen locations (including 150 in Minsk, 100 in Vitebsk, 75 in Nevel, 60 in Polotsk, 45 in Kharkov, etc.), plus plans for additional groups in Georgia, Samarkand and Volhynia. Non-Chabad yeshivas (Novardok, Minsk under R. Yehoshua of Hordna, etc.) had already been closed or had fled by the late 5680s, leaving Chabad branches as the last organized network. Students lived on 20–25 rubles per month and faced constant Yevsektsiya pressure.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yechezkel Feigin | Elchanan Dov Marozov | Eliyahu Chaim Althaus | Saadia Liberov

Significant quotations

Now Tomchei Temimim is in five principal large places besides smaller places, and the number of students is about three hundred. — R. Elchanan Dov Marozov, 5687 (1926–1927) ^[71]

What you ask—how one studies Torah in Russia—yes, I have seen holiness. Would that they studied so in other countries where one is permitted to study, only that one would not need the Russian mesirut nefesh. And that is the Nevel yeshiva which was the center. — the Rebbe Rayatz at Dvinsk station, Adar 5688 (1927–1928) ^[72]

Chapter 92: The Yeshiva in Kutaisi and Other Georgian Towns (5691 (1930–1931)–5693 (1932–1933))

After the final closure of the Vitebsk central yeshiva in late winter 5691 (1930–1931), the main body of students was directed to the Caucasus. Groups first tried Baku, then settled in Kutaisi (and briefly Sachkhere and other Georgian towns). R. Shmuel Levitin (later succeeded by R. Avraham Levi Slavin) and local Georgian shochetim and rabbanim assisted. R. Zalman Levitin (“Haretscher”) arrived as mashpia and raised the level of Chassidus study. Conditions were severe—famine, difficulty obtaining food, constant fear of arrest. In the winter of 5692 (1931–1932)–93 the branch was raided; R. Zalman Levitin and many students were arrested. Remaining students fled back into Russia proper. Contemporary memoirs (R. Michael Rapoport and others) describe the train journey, interrogations, and life in Kutaisi under extreme poverty.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

In the month of Tammuz we received instructions to travel to Baku in Azerbaijan, where we could study Torah in peace… We all moved to Kutaisi and studied there for several years. The situation in the country was very bad, for there was great famine… — R. Michael Rapoport ^[73]

Chapter 93: The Arrested and the Remnant Yeshivas (5693 (1932–1933))

A detailed letter of 2 Iyar 5693 (1932–1933) from one of the yeshiva administrators to the Rebbe Rayatz lists the scattered remnants after the Georgian arrests and the failed Batum border-crossing attempt (23 Chabad men arrested, including nine students). Groups of 4–10 older students continued in Kiev, Kursk, Novozybkov, Staraya Russa, Nevel, Poltava and elsewhere. Many others had returned to their hometowns. The letter also records those still in Batum prison and notes the extreme difficulty of supporting even this small number. These remnant branches form the subject of the following chapters.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 94: The Yeshiva in Kiev (5689 (1928–1929)–5694 (1933–1934))

A branch was established in Kiev in winter 5689 (1928–1929) after the Nevel closure (one of the classes transferred there). It continued until the beginning of winter 5694 (1933–1934). R. Binyamin Lipman of Minsk served as mashpia. Students (including R. Eliezer Pinsky, R. Nachum Volasov, R. Michael Kuznetsov, R. Moshe Yatsmenik and others) studied in synagogues under severe poverty; occasional packages of money arrived from the Rebbe in Poland. In Tishrei 5694 (1933–1934) the authorities raided the women’s gallery; most students escaped through a window while one local man was briefly arrested. The synagogue was sealed and the branch closed. A smaller group of about ten continued in a workshop-like setting for a short time. Memoirs describe both the material hardship and the farbrengens on 12 Tammuz.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Now I have to speak with you about the workers who are here. We are ten brothers doing our work according to the order established of old… The spirit of the storm all around prevents them from advancing further. — R. Binyamin Lipman, Iyar 5693 (1932–1933) ^[74]

Chapter 95: The Yeshiva in Chernigov (5694 (1933–1934)–5695 (1934–1935))

After the Kiev raid of Tishrei 5694 (1933–1934) a small group (including the author’s father and R. Moshe Yatsmenik) moved to Chernigov. R. Yehuda Leib Don-Yechia, the local rav, taught them. The group studied through 5694 (1933–1934)–95; some later moved on to Moscow/Malakhovka or Berdichev. Contemporary letters show the students writing to the Rebbe about the possibility of obtaining exit papers for Riga.

Individuals and groups

Yehuda Leib Don-Yechia | Moshe Yatsmenik | Yaakov Ganzburg | Avraham Kinman

Chapter 96: The Yeshiva in Malakhovka (5694 (1933–1934)–5695 (1934–1935))

Malakhovka (near Moscow) had a sizable Chabad community. From the middle of winter 5694 (1933–1934) a group of students gathered there to study with R. Shlomo Chaim Kesselman (exiled from Polotsk), R. Rafael Cohen and others. Because residence within 100 km of Moscow required special permits, the students lived under constant threat of arrest; several were detained at night, forced to sign undertakings to leave, and then returned to study. Peak numbers reached about six regular students plus visitors. The branch continued into 5695 (1934–1935). Many later listed Malakhovka/Moscow among their places of study.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

I am now in a city where there are workers engaged in His craft… In this city [Moscow area] there are both things [Anash and study partners]. — R. Avraham Kinman, summer 5694 (1933–1934) ^[75]

Chapter 97: The Yeshiva in Novozybkov (5691 (1930–1931)–5694 (1933–1934))

Small groups studied in Novozybkov at different times between summer 5691 (1930–1931) and summer 5694 (1933–1934). One group of four (including R. Moshe Robinson/Karalovitcher, R. Dovber Gurevitz and R. Yitzchak Shetatin) studied under the local rav R. Shlomo Yosef Zain for nearly a year until Lag ba-Omer 5694 (1933–1934), then moved to Karalovitch. Earlier, R. David Okunov had spent about a year and a half there after the Yekaterinoslav closure. Support for matzos and basic needs is recorded in local letters.

Individuals and groups

Shlomo Yosef Zain | David Okunov | Moshe Robinson | Yosef Goldberg | Yitzchak Shetatin

Chapter 98: The Yeshiva in Kursk (5693 (1932–1933)–5700 (1939–1940))

One of the longer-lived branches, active from at least spring 5693 (1932–1933) until summer 5700 (1939–1940). Early students included R. Bentzion Katzenelson, R. Shaul Steinback, and the Wilenkin brothers (Yosef and Shalom). Later, R. Michael Rapoport served as maggid shiur for younger boys (ages 6–16); after his departure R. Shimon Shtilerman and then R. Henich Rapoport continued. Studies took place in synagogues and private homes; frequent moves were required once locations became known. In Iyar 5700 (1939–1940) the NKVD raided; R. Henich Rapoport and several students were arrested. R. Yehoshua Raskin (Katznelson) described months of solitary confinement, repeated interrogations, and a sentence of five to ten years in a labor camp. Local support came from R. Mendel Sheinman and others. Peak numbers were small (often 6–8 regular students).

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Kindelach, you don’t need to be impressed by anyone! You can tell them the whole truth about me… They can arrest me and exile me to Siberia, but you must continue to learn! — R. Mendel Sheinman upon his arrest in Kursk, 5700 (1939–1940) ^[76]

Chapter 99: The Yeshiva in Zhitomir (5694 (1933–1934)–5697 (1936–1937))

Opened in winter 5694 (1933–1934) after the Kiev closure; continued until late summer 5697 (1936–1937). Initial students: R. Eliezer Pinsky, R. Nachum Volosov, R. Avraham Zelig Ganburg, later joined by R. Yaakov Shatz, R. Michel Konitzov and others. Local help came from R. Mordechai Eliezer Lapatovsky (hy"d). Studies occurred in synagogues (including the “Tikin Kleizl” and the Maggid’s kloyz). After Pinsky’s marriage, R. Michael Teitelbaum served as mashgiach. A police visit in 5696 (1935–1936) forced a temporary flight; the branch closed after a night raid in Elul 5697 (1936–1937) and students fled to Voronezh.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 100: The Yeshiva in Berdichev (5695 (1934–1935)–5698 (1937–1938))

Founded in winter 5695 (1934–1935) by R. Yaakov Shatz; continued (with interruptions) until 24 Tevet 5698 (1937–1938). Early students included the Geisinsky cousins and others; later groups numbered up to 12–13. Maggidei shiur included R. Yaakov Shatz, R. Avraham Zelig Ganburg and R. Moshe Robinson (Karalovitcher). On 24 Tevet 5698 (1937–1938) the NKVD arrested Robinson together with the students. After about a month the younger boys were sent to a children’s home; R. Michael Teitelbaum later rescued several of them. Robinson was exiled. Contemporary Soviet press noted the existence of the “illegal” group.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

The studies were at five in the morning. One of the students would lock the shutters from outside and leave. We studied in different synagogues and only gathered for the shiur. — R. Heshel Zeitlin on the Berdichev branch ^[77]

Chapter 101: The Yeshiva in Poltava (5696 (1935–1936))

A short-lived branch active mainly in 5696 (with a small precursor in summer 5695 (1934–1935)). Students included R. Moshe Binyamin Kaplan, R. Moshe Yashmenik and R. Nachum Volosov (who initially served as mashgiach). Later mashgichim were R. Moshe Yashmenik and then R. Meir Zarhi (Kaplan). Local connection was through R. Dovber Greenferim, the rav of Poltava, and R. Shmuel Dabrovskin. The group studied through the winter and following summer before dispersing.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 102: The Yeshiva in Haditch (5696 (1935–1936))

A small winter 5696 (1935–1936) branch. Students included R. Moni Rapoport, R. Mordechai Trigubov and others under R. Avraham Zelig Ganburg (with a brief period under R. Yosef Goldberg). R. Dovber Kibman later recalled studying there before returning to Berdichev. The group was short-lived and students moved on after Pesach.

Individuals and groups

Avraham Zelig Ganburg | Moni Rapoport | Mordechai Trigubov | Yosef Goldberg | Dovber Kibman

Chapter 103: The Yeshiva in Voronezh (5695 (1934–1935)–5698 (1937–1938))

Opened in summer 5695 (1934–1935) for older bachurim and continued until late summer 5698 (1937–1938). Early participants included R. Michael Teitelbaum, R. Shaul Froifusker, R. Shalom Wilenkin and R. Yisrael Levin; the local chassid R. Betzalel Wilshansky frequently farbrenged with them. After the Zhitomir closure a larger group arrived. Studies took place in the synagogue. Threats of the “known informer” forced temporary dispersals to nearby villages (Sasnovka, Grapskaya). R. Michael Teitelbaum served as mashgiach until his marriage.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 104: The Yeshiva in Karalovitch (5694 (1933–1934)–5697 (1936–1937))

A branch for older students active from early summer 5694 (1933–1934) until late winter 5697 (1936–1937). Participants included R. Yosef Goldberg, R. Moshe Robinson, R. Yeshaya Gopin, R. Nissan Pinson, R. Dovber Gurevitz and R. Shimon Charitonov. Some had previously studied in Novozybkov. The group dispersed in the course of 5697 (1936–1937), with members moving to other branches.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 105: Support of the Rebbe for the Yeshivas

Throughout the underground period the Rebbe Rayatz provided financial support from the central Tomchei Temimim funds (covering both Polish and Russian branches). Letters document requests for addresses of students so that aid could be sent, and monthly budget allocations (one surviving fragment lists ~1,000 rubles per month as the Rebbe’s share for the Russian “Tomchei Temimim” groups of five students studying in various batei midrash). Local Anash also contributed beyond their means. The Rebbe’s letters repeatedly emphasize the mesirus nefesh of the students and the extreme physical hardship (hunger, exile, constant flight).

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Avraham Dreizin | Shneur Zalman Schneersohn | Chaim Lieberman

Significant quotations

They are, thank G-d, studying Torah with actual mesirus nefesh… hungry, barefoot, weak, tortured and persecuted… May G-d have mercy on them and redeem them soon with a complete redemption. ^[78]

Chapter 106: The New Director – R. Yona Cohen of Poltava

After R. Avraham Dreizin was forced into hiding by intensified arrests in summer 5695 (1934–1935), central direction of the scattered branches gradually passed to R. Yona Cohen (Poltaver), who lived in the Moscow area. In summer 5696 (1935–1936) the Rebbe formally entrusted him with overall responsibility. Working with R. Mordechai Eliezer Lapatovsky (Zhitomir) and others, he coordinated the assignment of older bachurim as maggidei shiur, the founding of new branches, and the distribution of support funds (often carried by trusted women). Meetings of senior students were held in Moscow (including at the home of R. Moshe Katzman) to plan the continuation of the yeshivas under conditions of extreme danger.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 107: The Yeshiva in Krivoi Rog (5696 (1935–1936)–5698 (1937–1938))

A group moved from Berdichev in summer 5696 (1935–1936) and studied until late Tishrei 5697 (1936–1937). A second branch opened after Pesach 5697 (1936–1937) under R. Yisrael Yehuda Levin and continued into mid-winter 5698 (1937–1938). Students included R. Moshe Binyamin Kaplan, R. Moshe Aharon Geisinsky, R. Aharon Elazar Mogilevsky, R. Leib Motzkin, R. Yoel Dubman, R. Yehoshua Katznelson and others. Studies took place in the synagogue women’s gallery and, at times, in a chicken coop. A daytime raid forced flight; Levin delayed his own escape until the boys were safe. The branch was closed and reopened more than once before final dispersal.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Only one person did not move. It was R. Yisrael himself, who stood and waited until we had all fled… only then did he flee as well. It was true mesirus nefesh. — R. Yehoshua Katznelson on the Krivoi Rog raid ^[79]

Chapter 108: The Yeshiva in Klinzy (5697 (1936–1937))

Opened after Pesach 5697 (1936–1937) by R. Yosef Goldberg and continued until 24 Kislev 5698 (1937–1938). Students included R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon, R. Henich Rapoport, R. Shalom Ber Friedman, R. Tzvi Hirsch Braslav and others. On the night of the attempted arrest Goldberg was absent and the group escaped. He later opened short-lived branches in other towns (including Kubishov).

Individuals and groups

Yosef Goldberg | Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon | Henich Rapoport | Shalom Ber Friedman | Yechezkel Brod

Chapter 109: Remnants of the Yeshivas in Russia (5697 (1936–1937)–5701 (1940–1941))

By 5697 (1936–1937)–5700 (1939–1940) most organized branches had been closed by arrests and exile. Small groups of three to six students continued in scattered locations (including Yegoryevsk near Moscow under R. Yisrael Neveler, and temporary groups in Kharkov and elsewhere). Students and mashgichim moved constantly; many older bachurim were themselves arrested. The pattern persisted until the outbreak of war, when large numbers of Anash fled eastward to Samarkand and Tashkent.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 110: The Yeshiva in Kutaisi and Georgian Cities (5698 (1937–1938)–5706 (1945–1946))

Founded around Pesach 5698 (1937–1938) in Kutaisi (Georgia) and continued until late 5705 (1944–1945). Early students included R. Yechezkel Brod, R. Leib Henich Menkin, R. Yeshaya Gopin, R. Menachem Mendel Raskin and R. Dovber Kibman. R. Yosef Goldberg directed the main branch and several smaller ones in nearby towns (Kulashi, Senaki, Sukhumi, Batumi, etc.) until his marriage; R. Moshe Marozov later took over. Additional mashgichim included R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon and R. Yaakov Notik. Students studied in private homes and synagogues; occasional arrests occurred but the relative remoteness of Georgia allowed greater continuity. After the war most remaining students transferred to the central yeshiva in Samarkand. In summer 5706 (1945–1946) a short-lived group was again sent from Samarkand to Kutaisi before the mass emigration via Poland.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 111: The Yeshiva in Melitopol (5698 (1937–1938)–5701 (1940–1941))

A small branch of 5–6 students operated in Melitopol (Crimea) from 5698 (1937–1938) until early summer 5701 (1940–1941). R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon served as mashgiach from 5698 (1937–1938) until winter 5700 (then moved to Kutaisi); R. Shalom Marozov arrived at the beginning of summer. Other students included R. Shneur Zalman Katzenelenbogen, R. Shneur Zalman Levin, R. Heshel Zeitlin and the brothers Ephraim Mordechai and Menachem Mendel Paley. At the start of summer 5701 (1940–1941) the older students were summoned for interrogation; fearing arrest they fled to Kutaisi and thereby escaped the German occupation of Melitopol later that summer, during which the remaining Jews were murdered.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 112: The Yeshiva in Samarkand and Tashkent (5702 (1941–1942)–5706 (1945–1946))

With the German invasion large numbers of Anash fled eastward to Central Asia, primarily Samarkand and Tashkent. An early study group formed around R. Eliyahu Chaim Roitblatt but collapsed under the great famine and typhus of 5702 (1941–1942). In early 5703 (1942–1943) the yeshiva was reorganized. R. Michael Teitelbaum began with a few students (including R. Shalom Levertov and the orphaned sons of R. Moshe Katzman and R. Mendel Dubrovsky). R. Menachem Mendel Futerfas assumed practical responsibility under the overall direction of R. Yona Cohen (then in Tashkent). Numbers grew rapidly; by 5704 (1943–1944) R. Nissan Nemanov was brought from Tashkent as the principal mashpia. At its peak the Samarkand yeshiva had roughly forty older students in the main hall and about one hundred younger boys (fifty studying Gemara), with a parallel branch of about sixty in Tashkent and continued activity in Kutaisi. After the war, as Anash began leaving on Polish papers, the yeshiva continued until mid-summer 5706 (1945–1946). R. Yona Cohen arranged for orphaned students to be registered with other Anash families so they could emigrate; he himself was arrested in Lvov before he could leave and disappeared.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Michael said to me: We must make a Tomchei Temimim yeshiva here. … We will take the two boys Shalom Kovliaker and Zelig Katzman and make a Tomchei Temimim, and arrange “meals” for them, and he will learn with them. ^[80]

Chapter 113: The Emigration of Anash from Russia

After completing the account of the underground Tomchei Temimim network (chapters נא–צח), the book turns to the final major theme: the emigration of Anash from Russia. During the mass Jewish emigration from the Russian Empire (from 1880 onward) relatively few Chabad chassidim participated; the Rebbeim were not enthusiastic about departure to the “land of freedom.” Even after the Revolution and the intensification of religious persecution, as long as the Rebbe Rayatz remained in Russia the majority of Anash and the Temimim stayed and continued the struggle. Individual instructions to leave were given in specific cases (e.g., R. Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod in 5682 (1921–1922)/5684 (1923–1924)), but the general stance was to remain. After the Rebbe’s own departure (Kislev 5688 (1927–1928)) the situation deteriorated further and emigration efforts increased.

Individuals and groups

Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Nachum Shimarya Shashonkin | Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod | Yisrael Jacobson | Yaakov Yisrael Zuber

Significant quotations

The fearers of G-d and the observers of Torah and mitzvos must stand firm as a camp… We are not permitted… to look with the glance of flight and escape from the place of the campaign; on the contrary, we must strengthen our stand… ^[81]

Chapter 114: Instructions of the Rebbe to Endeavor to Leave Russia

The first known individual instruction from the Rebbe Rayatz to emigrate to the United States was given to R. Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod (winter 5684 (1923–1924), after earlier preparation). A broader stirring among Anash began around Rosh Hashanah 5685 (1924–1925), when a group of Temimim in Leningrad resolved to promote departure and to send individuals abroad who would then help others. R. Yisrael Jacobson was among those who eventually left for the US and worked on behalf of those remaining. After the Rebbe’s release from Kostroma exile and his decision to leave for Riga, he instructed R. Yaakov Yisrael Zuber (Rosh Chodesh Elul 5687 (1926–1927)) to seek a visa for America for rabbinic work. Private instructions continued; the general attitude while the Rebbe was still in Russia had been to remain and strengthen Jewish life there.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

My opinion and desire is that you travel to America for rabbinate… I want you to travel there and inform them of all this in my name… ^[82]

Chapter 115: The Mission of R. Mordechai Dubin to Russia

Approximately two years after the Rebbe’s arrival in Riga he sent R. Mordechai Dubin (a member of the Latvian Sejm with political influence) to Russia to explore possibilities of extracting Anash. Dubin visited Leningrad and Moscow. He reported that former contacts in the Soviet apparatus had been replaced or were unwilling to help, that exit permits were sometimes sold for high sums, and that wealthy non-observant Jews were uninterested in funding the departure of religious Jews. The visit produced limited practical results but intensified the Rebbe’s private and general instructions that Anash should try to leave. The Rebbe also wrote repeatedly to American Chabad contacts requesting affidavits and rabbinic positions for individuals still in Russia (including R. Yehuda Butrashvili / Kolater and others).

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

From the day our Rebbe arrived in Riga he has been pressing me to travel to Russia in order to get you out… The chances are small… ^[83]

Chapter 116: Rescue Campaign by Anash in the United States

Anash already outside Russia, led especially by R. Yisrael Jacobson (who had arrived in 5686 (1925–1926)), organized systematic efforts. In 5689 (1928–1929) a detailed questionnaire (nine points covering name, occupation, means of support, preferred destination, etc.) was prepared and distributed; at least 150 completed forms reached Jacobson and were forwarded to the Rebbe. In summer 5690 (1929–1930) a special meeting of the Agudas HaTemimim in New York discussed concrete steps to save Anash still in Russia. Circular letters continued into 5693 (1932–1933) emphasizing the “pidyon shevuyim” obligation. Results remained limited because of American immigration quotas and Soviet exit restrictions.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 117: Difficulties in Obtaining a Visa, Travel Ticket and Passport

Even after external affidavits or rabbinic positions were secured, three nearly insurmountable obstacles remained: (1) a foreign entry visa, (2) paid steamship tickets for the entire family, and (3) a Soviet exit passport whose cost often exceeded $100–300 per adult (payable only in foreign currency after 5692 (1931–1932)). The United States imposed tight quotas after 5684 (1923–1924) and made rabbinic visas extremely difficult to obtain. Latvia granted temporary refuge more readily until 5694 (1933–1934); Poland and most other countries were closed. Palestine was the most accessible destination for those who could reach it. After obtaining the three documents the applicant still faced repeated refusals at Soviet exit offices; many spent years in Moscow or nearby towns (e.g., Yegoryevsk) merely to be eligible to file. The combination of economic crisis in the West and famine plus foreign-currency requirements inside the USSR brought emigration almost to a halt in 5692 (1931–1932)–5693 (1932–1933).

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

According to many cases I have seen, the difficulty of travel is great… After the documents and permits have been sent from there, it still remains in great doubt, dependent on the will, desire and judgment of the consul here who is very strict… ^[84]

Chapter 118: The Rebbe’s Efforts on Behalf of Emigration

From his arrival in Riga (5688 (1927–1928)) onward the Rebbe Rayatz continuously urged Anash to seek exit permits. In the relatively quieter year 5694 (1933–1934) he intensified private instructions: “submit in p’shutim” (ordinary Soviet currency rather than dollars), prefer the Land of Israel as destination, and re-apply after refusals. Surviving letter-books from Adar–Iyar 5694 (1933–1934) contain dozens of such directives. He also sought collective certificates and funding from the Joint and other bodies for groups of working-age Anash, and corresponded with R. Shneur Zalman Schneersohn (his representative in Russia) and R. Shlomo Yosef Zevin about practical lists and certificates. Approximately one hundred Anash families managed to leave in 5695 (1934–1935)–5696 (1935–1936), most for Palestine; thereafter borders tightened again until the end of the war.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Everyone knows [my view regarding] travel to the Holy Land… but concerning our brothers who are suffering there is no other counsel, for to the other countries besides Latvia they do not give entry permission, and in Latvia there is nothing to do… ^[85]

Chapter 119: R. Yaakov Yisrael Zuber

Following the Rebbe’s instruction (Elul 5687 (1926–1927)) R. Yisrael Jacobson obtained a rabbinic contract for Zuber from a synagogue on Coney Island. Because the United States had no diplomatic relations with the USSR, the documents had to be notarized in Russia and sent to the American consulate in Riga. Zuber reached Riga in early winter 5689 (1928–1929) but never received the American visa; after years of fruitless efforts he settled in Stockholm as a shoichet and rav and only reached the United States after the Second World War.

Individuals and groups

Yaakov Yisrael Zuber | Yisrael Jacobson | Yechezkel Feigin

Chapter 120: R. Yitzchak (Ha-Matmid) Horowitz

Efforts to bring R. Yitzchak Ha-Matmid (Horowitz) and R. Yaakov Maskalik (Voravtzer) out of Russia began immediately after Zuber’s arrival in Riga. Ha-Matmid eventually received an exit permit and reached Riga in early winter 5693 (1932–1933) after more than two years of attempts; his arrival was greeted with joy among Anash still inside Russia. Maskalik remained; he was arrested in late summer 5695 (1934–1935), exiled, and disappeared.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 121: R. Moshe Axelrod

R. Moshe Axelrod’s case illustrates the multi-year ordeal typical of those who eventually left. From 5690 (1929–1930) onward he received a synagogue contract and funds from relatives and from R. Yisrael Jacobson, yet faced repeated refusals, changing ticket requirements (Franz Line certificates became invalid), short-term arrest, eviction from his home, and the need to register in Leningrad or Moscow merely to file. After seven years of alternating hope and despair he succeeded in reaching the Land of Israel in summer 5696 (1935–1936).

Individuals and groups

Moshe Axelrod | Yisrael Jacobson | Yechezkel Feigin | Shneur Zalman Schneersohn | Aharon Tomarkin

Chapter 122: R. Yisrael Leib Lipschitz

Shortly after R. Moshe Axelrod’s departure, R. Yisrael Leib Lipschitz also reached the Land of Israel, but only after years of near-despair. The Rebbe personally arranged a single ticket; family tickets and the required foreign-currency passport fee remained obstacles. He registered near Moscow to file, appealed to Kalinin, and finally received his passport in winter 5697 (1936–1937).

Individuals and groups

Yisrael Leib Lipschitz | Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn | Yisrael Jacobson | Chaim Lieberman | Hendel Nadai

Chapter 123: R. Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin

R. Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin (brother-in-law of both R. Yisrael Jacobson and R. Yechezkel Feigin) received synagogue contracts, tickets, and dollar transfers, yet every application failed. When he tried to deposit the Joint money for the passport, the bank called the GPU; the funds were seized. He continued efforts for years without success. Arrested on the first night of Sukkot 5698 (1937–1938) for hosting a minyan and study circle in his home, he was sent to Siberia, where he died in Tishrei 5699 (1938–1939) after prolonged illness and hunger. His son-in-law R. Yaakov Shatz was also arrested and disappeared.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

On the first night of Sukkot they came and took our brother-in-law R. Aharon Eliezer into custody… the reason was that in his house they prayed in a minyan all three prayers and studied in groups… ^[86]

Chapter 124: R. Meir Gurkov

The elderly R. Meir Gurkov spent years transferring assets abroad (via the Joint, R. Moshe Gurary, R. Shmuel Abba Dalitzky, and R. Yisrael Jacobson) and securing certificates and tickets for Palestine. When everything was finally ready in 5695 (1934–1935), rumors spread that exit permits had been halted and that any application would mark the applicant as an enemy of the regime. He returned the tickets (losing only the certificate fee) and remained in Russia until the postwar exodus of winter 5707 (1946–1947).

Individuals and groups

Chapter 125: R. Shamai Vigan

R. Shamai Vigan attempted to finance his family’s emigration by shipping Torah scrolls and other seforim from closed synagogues for sale abroad. He obtained Palestine visas in 5694 (1933–1934), but new decrees in 5695 (1934–1935) banned both the export of books and the filing of passport applications without a full year of residence registration in the capital. Arrested with other Anash in Rostov at the beginning of 5696 (1935–1936), he was sentenced to hard labor in Siberia, lost two children, and, after his release, perished in Novozybkov during the German occupation.

Individuals and groups

Shamai Vigan | Yisrael Jacobson | Hanoch Hendel Ovolin | Chaim Padnas | Yitzchak Horowitz (Ha-Matmid)

Chapter 126: R. Elchanan Dovber Marozov

Former secretary of the Rebbe, R. Elchanan Dovber Marozov was arrested on Purim Katan 5687 (1926–1927), exiled for three years, and after his return settled in Leningrad under the assumed name “Dovber Pozner.” From 5689 (1928–1929) he urgently sought exit papers. Palestine visas were secured and partial funds raised, yet the full family tickets and Soviet passport were never obtained. He remained in Leningrad until mid-winter 5701 (1940–1941), when he was arrested and disappeared.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Please have mercy on my soul and the souls of my children… How long shall I be among those who cry out and are not answered? Bring me out and rescue me from the straits, for a little more and, God forbid, I shall be lost… ^[87]

Chapter 127: Attempts to Cross the Border Illegally (5691 (1930–1931)–5693 (1932–1933))

Two major attempts involving Tomchei Temimim students are recorded. In 5691 (1930–1931)–5692 (1931–1932) a non-Jew in Kamenets-Podolsk ferried dozens of Jews (including R. David Green and later R. Avraham Kvash) into Poland for payment. Kvash was briefly imprisoned in Poland on suspicion of espionage; relatives left behind were arrested and sent to Siberia. In late winter 5693 (1932–1933) a GPU provocation near the Caucasus border offered a route to Turkey and Palestine; twenty-three Chabadniks (nine of them yeshiva students) were arrested near Batumi, imprisoned for half a year, and sentenced to hard labor. They were released in mid-winter 5694 (1933–1934) after intensive foreign intervention (including efforts timed to Litvinov’s American visit). Even afterward the desire to flee continued, though the risks had become clearer.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 128: Closure of the Borders in the Following Years

After approximately one hundred Anash families left in 5695 (1934–1935)–5696 (1935–1936), exit permits ceased almost completely. The last known departures included R. Moshe Dovber Genovburg and his family (Kalinin signed their permit on Hoshana Rabbah 5698 (1937–1938)). The years 5694 (1933–1934)–5699 (1938–1939) were among the most murderous in Soviet history; millions were arrested, exiled, or executed, and the same fate befell many Chabadniks. The path of legal emigration remained closed until after the Second World War.

Individuals and groups

Moshe Dovber Genovburg | Yitzchak Genovburg | Mikhail Kalinin

Chapter 129: Departure from Russia in 5706 (1945–1946)

With the end of the war, Polish citizens who had fled to the USSR were allowed to return. Anash (mostly in Samarkand, Tashkent, and Kutaisi) exploited the opportunity by obtaining forged Polish papers and traveling via Lvov. The Rebbe initially advised caution (5 Tevet 5706 (1945–1946)) but later approved the route once its feasibility was confirmed. Several hundred families left during the summer and early winter of 5706 (1945–1946); the operation was highly secretive and largely self-organized by the Chabadniks themselves, with only limited contact with the broader “Briha” network. When the Soviets discovered the scheme, those still en route were arrested.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

A magnificent chapter in the history of the Briha belongs to the Lubavitcher Hasidim who left Russia in the first year after liberation, conducting an independent, planned, organized, and secret flight… ^[88]

Chapter 130: Upon Their Arrival in Poland

After crossing from Lvov the first stop was Kraków, then Łódź, where many Anash temporarily settled. Pogroms against returning Jews made prolonged residence in communist-controlled Poland dangerous. The Rebbe directed them (20 Tammuz 5706 (1945–1946)) to proceed toward the American zones of Germany and Austria rather than France, so that American visas might be more attainable. R. Yisrael Jacobson was sent from New York (18 Tammuz) as the Rebbe’s special emissary to organize the rescue, visit the refugees, and coordinate with local activists. By the end of summer more than 600 Anash (approximately 200 families, of whom ~550 were from Russia) had left Poland for the West; only a few remained behind to assist later groups.

Individuals and groups

Chapter 131: The Prague Way-Station

Prague served as the principal intermediate stop between Poland and the American zones (or France). R. Jacobson spent about a month there (late Tammuz–Menachem Av 5706 (1945–1946)) organizing border crossings, food, and onward travel. A small local committee (including R. Yehuda Hitrick, R. Chaim Chaikin, and others) continued the work after his departure. Later, permanent representatives (R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanson, R. Hillel Pewzner, and Mrs. Hadassah Garelik) were stationed in Prague to maintain contact with Lvov, the camps, and the Rebbe. A short-lived “Beit Sarah” girls’ school was also founded there. Activity largely ceased after the communist takeover of Czechoslovakia in 5708 (1947–1948).

Individuals and groups

Chapter 132: Refugee Camps

The first wave (~550 souls) reached the American zone in Germany and Austria in summer 5706 (1945–1946) and concentrated mainly in the Pocking camp near Munich (and smaller groups in Bensheim, Salzburg, etc.). There they re-established a Tomchei Temimim yeshiva under R. Nissan Nemanov; by late 5706 (1945–1946) it numbered roughly 120 students studying both Nigleh and Chassidus with renewed intensity. A later wave that left Russia in the winter of 5707 (1946–1947) settled in Austrian camps (Wegscheid, Steyr, Hallein). American visas proved far more difficult to obtain than expected (the consulates demanded proof of residence in the zones since 1945). The Rebbe therefore instructed that efforts shift toward moving the refugees to Paris for further processing.

Individuals and groups

Significant quotations

Thanks to G-d our holy yeshiva has been organized here in all its details. The total number of students is 120… they study with tremendous diligence and in a short time they have grown and succeeded… ^[89]

Chapter 133: Settlement in France and Other Countries

When American visas remained blocked, the Rebbe established a “European Office for Refugee Aid” in Paris under R. Binyamin Gorodetzky (appointed 24 Marcheshvan 5707 (1946–1947)). Approximately 500 Anash were transferred from the German and Austrian camps to Paris in fifteen groups during the summer of 5707 (1946–1947). A Tomchei Temimim yeshiva was reopened in Paris; many refugees ultimately settled in France, Belgium, or continued later to the United States or the Land of Israel. The office coordinated visas, housing, and funding with the Joint and other bodies, while the Rebbe maintained daily correspondence with the activists.

Individuals and groups

Final Conclusion of the Volume

With the successful transfer of roughly 500 Anash refugees to Paris in 5707 (1946–1947)–5708 (1947–1948) and the re-establishment of Tomchei Temimim there, the main narrative of the book comes to a close. Many of the refugees settled permanently in France or neighboring countries; others continued to the United States, England, Australia, or the Land of Israel. In 5709 (1948–1949) a large group of 140 souls left Paris for Israel, where Kfar Chabad was founded for them. The volume notes that the story of the remnant of Chabad that remained inside the Soviet Union after 5706 (1945–1946)–5707 (1946–1947) belongs to a later period (“She’erit Tenu’at Chabad be-Rusya”) and lies outside the scope of this work.

The book ends with extensive indices (subject, institutions, and a biographical list of Tomchei Temimim students), confirming that chapter קכ is the final narrative chapter.

Involvement of external actors

According to the book, aid and emigration support came through Chabad’s own networks (including Va’ad HaEzra in Paris and Poland) and personal interventions coordinated by Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn and his emissaries. The volume covers the period to 1950 and does not document involvement by the Mossad, Israeli government, broader Zionist movement, or Western intelligence agencies in the underground activities of this era.^[1]

Notes

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 Levin, Shalom Dovber. Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, Kehot Publication Society, Brooklyn, NY, 1989.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 19.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 20 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz letter, 22 Tevet 5683 (1922–1923)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p20" defined multiple times with different content
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 22 (quoting Rebbe Rashab’s will).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 25 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 35 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 39.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 41.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 53 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 65 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Tammuz 5683 (1922–1923)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 66 (quoting Yaakov Zachariah Maskalik, 1934).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 69 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 73 (quoting one of the participants). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p73" defined multiple times with different content
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 74 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 80 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 83 (quoting Binyamin Gorodetsky, Sefer Zikaron).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 84 (quoting Litvakov, head of the Yevsektsiya, as reported 5687 (1926–1927)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 88 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 89 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 91 (quoting Yitzchak Leib Neishuler letter, 2 Menachem Av 5686 (1925–1926)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 93 (from the 1927 memorandum on the religious life of the Jewish population).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 96 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928) letter).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 103 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz open letter, 13 Sivan 5686 (1925–1926)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 106 (quoting Elchanan Dov Marozov letter, 3 Kislev 5687 (1926–1927)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 115 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 118.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 121 (anonymous letter from Russia, seventh day of the arrest).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 125 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 8 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928), from Riga).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 127 (from the Riga committee protocol).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 135.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 138 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 143 (quoting Yechezkel Feigin, 25 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 147.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 150 (quoting Dov Ber Babrov, 4 Shevat 5693 (1932–1933)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 158 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz to R. Zamszky, late Iyar 5693 (1932–1933)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 160.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 163 (quoting Israel Gurary, 1931).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 165.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 166 (quoting Meir Gorkov, Adar 5692 (1931–1932)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 168 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 14 Elul 5696 (1935–1936)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 172 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz about R. Yaakov Maskalik).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 184 (from the 5689 (1928–1929) call for a public fast).
↑ ^43.0 ^43.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 187 (quoting Yaakov Maskalik, 1928). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p187" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^44.0 ^44.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 186 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin’s 1927 survey). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p186" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^45.0 ^45.1 ^45.2 ^45.3 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 210 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p210" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p210" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p210" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^46.0 ^46.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 217 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 7 Nisan 5690 (1929–1930)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p217" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^47.0 ^47.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 219–220 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 5692 (1931–1932)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p219" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^48.0 ^48.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 222 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 1933–34). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p222" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^49.0 ^49.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 224 (quoting the interrogation of Yechiel Michel Rapoport). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p224" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^50.0 ^50.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 226 (quoting Simcha Gorodetsky).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 228 (coded letter, 18 Elul 5695 (1934–1935)).
↑ ^52.0 ^52.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 231 (coded letter from Rostov). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p231" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^53.0 ^53.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 233 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p233" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^54.0 ^54.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 236 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p236" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^55.0 ^55.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 239 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p239" defined multiple times with different content
↑ ^56.0 ^56.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 242 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p242" defined multiple times with different content
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 244.
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 248 (quoting Rebbe Rashab, 28 Adar 5678 (1917–1918)).
↑ ^59.0 ^59.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 254 (quoting Aharon Kahanov).
↑ ^60.0 ^60.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 260 (quoting Yitzchak Goldin).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 229 (encrypted letter from Moscow, 18 Elul 5695 (1934–1935)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 245 (quoting Michael Yehuda Leib Cohen).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 266 (quoting Zalman Shimon Dvorkin).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 282 (from the 5689 (1928–1929) budget summary prepared by the Rebbe’s committee).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 290 (quoting letters of 5686 (1925–1926)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 293 (quoting R. Yaakov Gorary, summer 5688 (1927–1928)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 295 (quoting R. Yechezkel Feigin, summer 5688 (1927–1928)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 296 (quoting a student’s memoir).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 297 (quoting R. Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 302 (quoting R. Chaim Shaul Brook’s memoirs).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 307 (quoting R. Elchanan Dov Marozov, 5687 (1926–1927)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 307 (quoting the Rebbe Rayatz at Dvinsk station, Adar 5688 (1927–1928)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 310 (quoting R. Michael Rapoport).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 315 (quoting R. Binyamin Lipman, Iyar 5693 (1932–1933)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 318 (quoting R. Avraham Kinman, summer 5694 (1933–1934)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 326 (quoting R. Mendel Sheinman upon his arrest in Kursk, 5700 (1939–1940)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 333 (quoting R. Heshel Zeitlin on the Berdichev branch).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 341 (from letters of the Rebbe Rayatz, 5689 (1928–1929)–5691 (1930–1931)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 346 (quoting R. Yehoshua Katznelson on the Krivoi Rog raid).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 352 (memoir of the author’s father on the re-founding of the Samarkand yeshiva, early 5703 (1942–1943)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 356 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 20 Menachem Av 5685 (1924–1925), responding to a request to leave for the Land of Israel).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 358 (letter of R. Yaakov Yisrael Zuber transmitting the Rebbe’s instruction, 1 Tavo 5687 (1926–1927)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 360 (account of R. Nachum Shimarya Shashonkin on Dubin’s visit).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 365 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 18 Sivan 5689 (1928–1929)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 374 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 3 Iyar 5694 (1933–1934)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 391 (letter of R. Yechezkel Feigin, 28 Tishrei 5698 (1937–1938)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 400 (letter of R. Elchanan Dovber Marozov, 25 Menachem Av 5694 (1933–1934)).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 406 (quotation from Ephraim Dekel, Be-Netivei ha-Briha).
↑ Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 422 (letter of R. Avraham Eliyahu Plotkin, 13 Marcheshvan 5707 (1946–1947)).

[Levin1989-1] 1.0 ^1.1 Levin, Shalom Dovber. Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, Kehot Publication Society, Brooklyn, NY, 1989.

[Levin1989p19-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 19.

[Levin1989p20-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 20 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz letter, 22 Tevet 5683 (1922–1923)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p20" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p22-4] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 22 (quoting Rebbe Rashab’s will).

[Levin1989p25-5] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 25 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).

[Levin1989p35-6] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 35 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).

[Levin1989p39-7] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 39.

[Levin1989p41-8] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 41.

[Levin1989p53-9] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 53 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin).

[Levin1989p65-10] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 65 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Tammuz 5683 (1922–1923)).

[Levin1989p66-11] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 66 (quoting Yaakov Zachariah Maskalik, 1934).

[Levin1989p69-12] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 69 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).

[Levin1989p73-13] 13.0 ^13.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 73 (quoting one of the participants). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p73" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p74-14] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 74 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927)).

[Levin1989p80-15] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 80 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).

[Levin1989p83-16] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 83 (quoting Binyamin Gorodetsky, Sefer Zikaron).

[Levin1989p84-17] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 84 (quoting Litvakov, head of the Yevsektsiya, as reported 5687 (1926–1927)).

[Levin1989p88-18] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 88 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).

[Levin1989p89-19] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 89 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928)).

[Levin1989p91-20] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 91 (quoting Yitzchak Leib Neishuler letter, 2 Menachem Av 5686 (1925–1926)).

[Levin1989p93-21] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 93 (from the 1927 memorandum on the religious life of the Jewish population).

[Levin1989p96-22] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 96 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928) letter).

[Levin1989p103-23] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 103 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz open letter, 13 Sivan 5686 (1925–1926)).

[Levin1989p106-24] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 106 (quoting Elchanan Dov Marozov letter, 3 Kislev 5687 (1926–1927)).

[Levin1989p115-25] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 115 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).

[Levin1989p118-26] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 118.

[Levin1989p121-27] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 121 (anonymous letter from Russia, seventh day of the arrest).

[Levin1989p125-28] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 125 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 8 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928), from Riga).

[Levin1989p127-29] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 127 (from the Riga committee protocol).

[Levin1989p135-30] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 135.

[Levin1989p138-31] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 138 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929)).

[Levin1989p143-32] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 143 (quoting Yechezkel Feigin, 25 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).

[Levin1989p147-33] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 147.

[Levin1989p150-34] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 150 (quoting Dov Ber Babrov, 4 Shevat 5693 (1932–1933)).

[Levin1989p158-35] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 158 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz to R. Zamszky, late Iyar 5693 (1932–1933)).

[Levin1989p160-36] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 160.

[Levin1989p163-37] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 163 (quoting Israel Gurary, 1931).

[Levin1989p165-38] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 165.

[Levin1989p166-39] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 166 (quoting Meir Gorkov, Adar 5692 (1931–1932)).

[Levin1989p168-40] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 168 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 14 Elul 5696 (1935–1936)).

[Levin1989p172-41] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 172 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz about R. Yaakov Maskalik).

[Levin1989p184-42] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 184 (from the 5689 (1928–1929) call for a public fast).

[Levin1989p187-43] 43.0 ^43.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 187 (quoting Yaakov Maskalik, 1928). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p187" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p186-44] 44.0 ^44.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 186 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin’s 1927 survey). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p186" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p210-45] 45.0 ^45.1 ^45.2 ^45.3 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 210 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p210" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p210" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p210" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p217-46] 46.0 ^46.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 217 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 7 Nisan 5690 (1929–1930)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p217" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p219-47] 47.0 ^47.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 219–220 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 5692 (1931–1932)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p219" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p222-48] 48.0 ^48.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 222 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 1933–34). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p222" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p224-49] 49.0 ^49.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 224 (quoting the interrogation of Yechiel Michel Rapoport). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p224" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p226-50] 50.0 ^50.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 226 (quoting Simcha Gorodetsky).

[Levin1989p228-51] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 228 (coded letter, 18 Elul 5695 (1934–1935)).

[Levin1989p231-52] 52.0 ^52.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 231 (coded letter from Rostov). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p231" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p233-53] 53.0 ^53.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 233 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p233" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p236-54] 54.0 ^54.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 236 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p236" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p239-55] 55.0 ^55.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 239 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p239" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p242-56] 56.0 ^56.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 242 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942)). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Levin1989p242" defined multiple times with different content

[Levin1989p244-57] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 244.

[Levin1989p248-58] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 248 (quoting Rebbe Rashab, 28 Adar 5678 (1917–1918)).

[Levin1989p254-59] 59.0 ^59.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 254 (quoting Aharon Kahanov).

[Levin1989p260-60] 60.0 ^60.1 Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 260 (quoting Yitzchak Goldin).

[Levin1989p229-61] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 229 (encrypted letter from Moscow, 18 Elul 5695 (1934–1935)).

[Levin1989p245-62] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 245 (quoting Michael Yehuda Leib Cohen).

[Levin1989p266-63] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 266 (quoting Zalman Shimon Dvorkin).

[Levin1989p282-64] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 282 (from the 5689 (1928–1929) budget summary prepared by the Rebbe’s committee).

[Levin1989p290-65] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 290 (quoting letters of 5686 (1925–1926)).

[Levin1989p293-66] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 293 (quoting R. Yaakov Gorary, summer 5688 (1927–1928)).

[Levin1989p295-67] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 295 (quoting R. Yechezkel Feigin, summer 5688 (1927–1928)).

[Levin1989p296-68] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 296 (quoting a student’s memoir).

[Levin1989p297-69] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 297 (quoting R. Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin).

[Levin1989p302-70] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 302 (quoting R. Chaim Shaul Brook’s memoirs).

[Levin1989p307-71] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 307 (quoting R. Elchanan Dov Marozov, 5687 (1926–1927)).

[Levin1989p307b-72] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 307 (quoting the Rebbe Rayatz at Dvinsk station, Adar 5688 (1927–1928)).

[Levin1989p310-73] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 310 (quoting R. Michael Rapoport).

[Levin1989p315-74] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 315 (quoting R. Binyamin Lipman, Iyar 5693 (1932–1933)).

[Levin1989p318-75] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 318 (quoting R. Avraham Kinman, summer 5694 (1933–1934)).

[Levin1989p326-76] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 326 (quoting R. Mendel Sheinman upon his arrest in Kursk, 5700 (1939–1940)).

[Levin1989p333-77] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 333 (quoting R. Heshel Zeitlin on the Berdichev branch).

[Levin1989p341-78] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 341 (from letters of the Rebbe Rayatz, 5689 (1928–1929)–5691 (1930–1931)).

[Levin1989p346-79] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 346 (quoting R. Yehoshua Katznelson on the Krivoi Rog raid).

[Levin1989p352-80] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 352 (memoir of the author’s father on the re-founding of the Samarkand yeshiva, early 5703 (1942–1943)).

[Levin1989p356-81] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 356 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 20 Menachem Av 5685 (1924–1925), responding to a request to leave for the Land of Israel).

[Levin1989p358-82] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 358 (letter of R. Yaakov Yisrael Zuber transmitting the Rebbe’s instruction, 1 Tavo 5687 (1926–1927)).

[Levin1989p360-83] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 360 (account of R. Nachum Shimarya Shashonkin on Dubin’s visit).

[Levin1989p365-84] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 365 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 18 Sivan 5689 (1928–1929)).

[Levin1989p374-85] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 374 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 3 Iyar 5694 (1933–1934)).

[Levin1989p391-86] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 391 (letter of R. Yechezkel Feigin, 28 Tishrei 5698 (1937–1938)).

[Levin1989p400-87] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 400 (letter of R. Elchanan Dovber Marozov, 25 Menachem Av 5694 (1933–1934)).

[Levin1989p406-88] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 406 (quotation from Ephraim Dekel, Be-Netivei ha-Briha).

[Levin1989p422-89] Levin, Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit, 1989, p. 422 (letter of R. Avraham Eliyahu Plotkin, 13 Marcheshvan 5707 (1946–1947)).

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