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Innovative Communications & Strategies

2026-10-21T08:42:12Z

David: Redirected page to Incostrat

#redirect[[Incostrat]]

Shalom Dovber Levin

2026-10-20T09:53:56Z

David:

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Chabad-Lubavitch rabbi, librarian and historian (b. 1948), director of the central Chabad library of Agudas Chasidei Chabad in Brooklyn and compiler of Kehot's Hebrew histories of Chabad in Tsarist Russia, the USSR, the Holy Land and the United States. Chabad-side.'''}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Shalom Dovber Levin
| other_names = Shalom DovBer Levine; Shalom Ber Levin
| birth_date = 1948 (per Chaim Miller)
| nationality = Israeli-born; American
| occupation = Rabbi; director and curator of the Library of [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad]] (Central Chabad-Lubavitch Library), Brooklyn; historian and editor
| known_for = ''Toldot Chabad'' series of Hebrew histories of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] ([[Kehot Publication Society|Kehot]]); ''Treasures from the Chabad Library'' (2009); editor of the ''Igrot Kodesh'' letters of the sixth and seventh Rebbes
}}

'''Shalom Dovber Levin''' (also spelt '''Levine''') is a [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] rabbi, librarian and historian. He is the director and curator of the central Chabad library at 770 Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn, the library of [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad]].<ref name="ChabadLib" /><ref name="ChabadOrgHebraica" /> He compiled the Hebrew ''Toldot Chabad'' histories of the movement, published by the movement's own [[Kehot Publication Society]]. They cover Chabad in Tsarist Russia, the Soviet Union, the Holy Land and the United States.<ref name="LubCom2010" /> He has also edited many volumes of the Rebbes' letters and writings.<ref name="Anash" /> '''His histories are Chabad-side sources.''' They are compiled by a Chabad employee from documents and memoirs held in the movement's own library, and are published by its own press.

== Career ==
In an interview published by [[Anash.org]], Levin says that he came to the United States from Israel as a young man "to study at the Chabad yeshivah in New York and to be near the Rebbe". He recalls: "In 1976, three years after my wedding, the Rebbe offered me a job looking after the central Chabad library, creating a catalog and organizing what was already an enormous collection, comprising some fifty thousand volumes."<ref name="Anash" /> The Chabad-side biographer [[Chaim Miller]] gives his birth year as 1948. Miller dates his hiring to 1977, as librarian of the collection of [[Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch]].<ref name="Millerch13" /> Levin says that the other part of his job was editing new publications, and that "to date, I have edited over 100 volumes of letters, writings and lectures of the Chabad Rebbes over the generations".<ref name="Anash" /> [[Chabad.org]] calls him "Director and Curator at the Central Chabad-Lubavitch Research Library" and "A renowned expert on Jewish law and the history of Chabad". It notes his "new critical edition of Shulchan Aruch Harav".<ref name="ChabadOrgHebraica" /> In 2010 Chabad.org described him as "the library's chief librarian".<ref name="ChabadOrg2010" />

== The library case ==
According to [[Chaim Miller|Miller]], around March 1985 Levin's assistant Yitzchak Wilhelm noticed that books were missing and told him: "I think we have a thief". Video surveillance was then installed in the library.<ref name="Millerch13" /> The Court of Appeals later recorded that the removals by [[Barry Gourary]] "were discovered by video surveillance". They led to the lawsuit ''Agudas Chasidei Chabad v. Gourary''.<ref name="Gourary1987F2d" /><ref name="Millerch13" /> Miller writes that in July 1985 the Rebbe's secretary [[Yehuda Krinsky]] asked the two librarians to "prepare documents for the case". They "spent the next four months plowing through tens of thousands of documents" and were in daily contact with [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]]'s lawyers.<ref name="Millerch13" /> Miller draws in part on Levin's own Chabad-side account of the case, ''Mishpat Ha-Sefarim — Didan Natzach'', which the library has published online.<ref name="Millerch13" /> The court found that the library had been delivered to Agudas Chasidei Chabad "to be held in trust for the benefit of the religious community of Chabad Chasidism".<ref name="Gourary1987FSupp" /> See [[Schneerson library case]] and [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad]].

== Works on Chabad history ==
The [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] headquarters' announcement of the Tsarist volume calls Levin a "Chabad historian" and "director of the Central Chabad-Lubavitch Library and Archive Center". It says the book is "based on original documents and memoirs, housed in the Central Chabad-Lubavitch Library", and lists his companion volumes on Soviet Russia, the Holy Land and the United States.<ref name="LubCom2010" /> The Tsarist volume is a selection of chapters, not a continuous history.<ref name="LubCom2010" />

The independent critic [[David Berger]] lists Levin's histories of Chabad in the United States and in Soviet Russia among the main secondary works on the movement's history.<ref name="Berger4" /> [[Chaim Miller|Miller]] cites Levin's volumes throughout his biography of [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]].<ref name="Millerch13" />

''Treasures from the Chabad Library'' ([[Kehot Publication Society|Kehot]], 2009) is a bilingual Hebrew–English catalogue of the library's rarest items. According to [[Chabad.org]] it has 154 entries over 564 pages. Levin called it "a compilation of 35 years of work".<ref name="ChabadOrg2010" /><ref name="Treasures" />

== Use on Powerbase ==
Two of Levin's histories have their own pages:
* [[History of Chabad in the USSR - 1989]]
* [[History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia - Selected Chapters, 1770-1920]]
His volumes are also cited, and labelled Chabad-side, on these pages:
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], for the 1927 arrest and the Soviet underground
* [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]], for [[Tomchei Temimim]], the move to Rostov and the 1910 rabbinical conference
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)]]
* [[Dovber Schneuri]]
* [[Shmuel Schneersohn]]
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch timeline]]
Where an independent or archival source exists, the pages give it alongside Levin. Examples are the [[OGPU]] files published by [[Irina Osipova]], and academic studies.

== Works ==
* ''Toldot Chabad b'Artzot HaBrit, 5660–5710'' [History of Chabad in the United States, 1900–1950]. Brooklyn: [[Kehot Publication Society]], 1988. 536 pp. (Hebrew).
* ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaSovietit, 5678–5710'' [History of Chabad in Soviet Russia, 1917–1950]. Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 1989. ISBN 0-8266-5331-6 (Hebrew).
* ''Toldot Chabad b'Eretz HaKodesh, 5537–5710'' [History of Chabad in the Holy Land, 1777–1950]. Brooklyn: Kehot Publication Society. 348 pp. (Hebrew).
* ''The Lubavitch Library'' (Hebrew). New York: Library of [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad]], 1993.
* ''Treasures from the Chabad Library''. Brooklyn: Kehot Publication Society, 2009. 564 pp. ISBN 978-0-8266-0657-0 (Hebrew and English).
* ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit – Perakim Nivcharim, 5530–5680'' [History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia – Selected Chapters, 1770–1920]. Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8266-5327-7 (Hebrew).
* (ed.) ''Igrot Kodesh'' of Rabbi [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]. New York: Kehot, 1982–2014, 17 vols.
* (ed.) ''Igrot Kodesh'' of Rabbi [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]]. New York: Kehot, 1987–2009, 30 vols.

== See also ==
* [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad]]
* [[Schneerson library case]]
* [[Kehot Publication Society]]

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="ChabadLib">[https://www.chabadlibrary.org/ "Lubavitch Library"], Library of Agudas Chassidei Chabad – Ohel Yosef Yitzchak Lubavitch, home page, naming Levin as director (מנהל). Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="ChabadOrgHebraica">Shalom DovBer Levine, [https://www.chabad.org/multimedia/video_cdo/aid/2627465/jewish/Early-Hebraica-at-the-Chabad-Library.htm "Early Hebraica at the Chabad Library: Manuscripts, Incunabula, Antique Books and Leaflets"], Chabad.org (author note). Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="ChabadOrg2010">Chanie Kaminker, [https://www.chabad.org/news/article_cdo/aid/1126497/jewish/Jewish-Treasures-on-a-Coffee-Table.htm "Rare Jewish Treasures Accessible in New Book"], Chabad.org, 16 February 2010. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="Anash">[https://anash.org/the-unauthorized-renovation/ "The Unauthorized Renovation"], Anash.org, 2 January 2025 (interview with Shalom DovBer Levine, recorded 1994, 2007 and 2023). Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="LubCom2010">[https://www.lubavitch.com/new-volume-on-chabad-history-published/ "New Volume on Chabad History Published"], Chabad Lubavitch World Headquarters (lubavitch.com), 21 September 2010. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="Treasures">Shalom Dovber Levine, [https://s3.wasabisys.com/chabadlibrary/pdf/mbhg-e.pdf ''Treasures from the Chabad Library''], Brooklyn: Kehot Publication Society, 2009, ISBN 978-0-8266-0657-0, title and copyright pages. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="Millerch13">[[Chaim Miller]], ''Turning Judaism Outward: A Biography of the Rebbe, Menachem Mendel Schneerson'', Brooklyn: Kol Menachem, 2014, ch. 13 ("The Rebbe's Army, 1978–1987") and bibliography (Kindle edition; no print page numbers). Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="Berger4">[[David Berger]], ''The Rebbe, the Messiah, and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference'', London and Portland, Oregon: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, ch. 1, p. 4 n. 1. Critical source.</ref>
<ref name="Gourary1987F2d">''Agudas Chasidei Chabad of United States v. Gourary'', [https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F2/833/833.F2d.431.87-7224.1302.html 833 F.2d 431] (2d Cir. 17 November 1987), ¶ 6. Court record (civil).</ref>
<ref name="Gourary1987FSupp">''Agudas Chasidei Chabad of United States v. Gourary'', [https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/650/1463/1663054/ 650 F. Supp. 1463] (E.D.N.Y. 6 January 1987) (Sifton, J.), at 1474. Court record (civil).</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Levin, Shalom Dovber]]
[[Category:Writers|Levin, Shalom Dovber]]

Chabad-Lubavitch in West Asia

2026-10-20T09:34:41Z

David:

{{short description|'''Comprehensive list of Chabad-Lubavitch institutions in West Asia and North Africa'''}}
{{Chabad sidebar}}
'''List of Chabad-Lubavitch institutions in West Asia''' catalogues all known [[Chabad-Lubavitch]] groups, centres, yeshivot, nurseries, communal institutions, and related entities operating in the region, overwhelmingly concentrated in the Zionist entity known as "Israel".<ref name="lubavitchme">Lubavitch.com, [https://www.lubavitch.com/centers/middle-east Middle East] ''Lubavitch.com'', accessed March 2, 2026.</ref> As The Times reports, Chabad maintains a presence in select Muslim-majority countries following recent diplomatic shifts, emphasising outreach to Jewish visitors and residents.<ref>The Jerusalem Post, [https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/chabad-to-expand-to-more-muslim-countries-after-uae-emmissary-announcement-647037 Chabad to expand to more Muslim countries after UAE emmissary announcement] ''The Jerusalem Post'', October 26, 2020.</ref> Reports suggest over 800 institutions exist in the Zionist entity alone, with smaller networks in neighbouring states.<ref name="lubavitchme" /> This list aims to enumerate all identifiable entities, drawing from official directories and contemporary accounts, organised by country with subsections for types where applicable.

== Cyprus ==
[[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] maintains five institutions in Cyprus, serving the local Jewish community and tourists.<ref name="lubavitchme" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Chabad institutions in Cyprus
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Cyprus]] || Larnaca || Central organisation
|-
| [[Chabad House of Larnaca]] || Larnaca || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House of Nicosia]] || Nicosia || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House of Limassol]] || Limassol || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House of Paphos]] || Paphos || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House of Ayia Napa]] || Ayia Napa || Community centre and synagogue
|}

== United Arab Emirates ==
[[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] established an official presence in the UAE in 2020, with centres in major cities to support growing Jewish activity.<ref>JNS.org, [https://www.jns.org/chabad-lubavitch-announces-emissary-to-united-arab-emirates Chabad-Lubavitch announces emissary to United Arab Emirates] ''JNS.org'', November 1, 2020.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Chabad institutions in United Arab Emirates
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]] || Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Ras Al Khaimah || Central organisation
|-
| [[Jewish Community Center - Dubai]] || Dubai || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad House Abu Dhabi]] || Abu Dhabi || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House Dubai]] || Dubai || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House Ras Al Khaimah]] || Ras Al Khaimah || Community centre and synagogue
|}
== Turkey ==
[[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] operates several centres in Turkey, primarily in Istanbul and resort areas, catering to tourists and local Jews.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Chabad institutions in Turkey
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Chabad of Istanbul]] || Istanbul || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House Antalya]] || Antalya || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House Bodrum]] || Bodrum || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House Marmaris]] || Marmaris || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad House Ankara]] || Ankara || Community centre and synagogue
|}
== Morocco ==
Though in North Africa, Morocco is often associated with Middle Eastern Jewish networks; [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] has a vibrant presence here, including educational institutions.<ref>JNS.org, [https://www.jns.org/chabad-lubavitch-announces-emissary-to-united-arab-emirates Chabad-Lubavitch announces emissary to United Arab Emirates] ''JNS.org'', November 1, 2020.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Chabad institutions in Morocco
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Morocco]] || Casablanca || Central organisation
|-
| [[Chabad of Casablanca]] || Casablanca || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad of Marrakech]] || Marrakech || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad of Rabat]] || Rabat || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad of Tangier]] || Tangier || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad of Fez]] || Fez || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad of Agadir]] || Agadir || Community centre and synagogue
|}
== Tunisia ==
Similar to Morocco, Tunisia hosts [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] centres, notably in Djerba, a historic Jewish site.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Chabad institutions in Tunisia
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Chabad of Djerba]] || Djerba || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad of Tunis]] || Tunis || Community centre and synagogue
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Tunisia]] || Tunis || Central organisation
|}
== Zionist entity ("Israel") ==
The bulk of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] activity in the region occurs within the Zionist entity, with over 800 institutions including centres, yeshivot, and nurseries operated by [[Colel Chabad]].<ref name="lubavitchme" /><ref name="colel">Colel Chabad, [https://colelchabad.org/childcare/daycare-centers Colel Chabad Daycare Centers for Needy Children] ''ColelChabad.org'', accessed March 2, 2026.</ref> A contemporary report makes clear that these encompass community centres, educational facilities, and charitable operations.<ref>Chabad.org, [https://www.chabad.org/jewish-centers/country/Israel Chabad Centers in Israel] ''Chabad.org'', accessed March 2, 2026.</ref>
=== Community centres and synagogues ===
The following represents a selection from hundreds of centres; for exhaustive directories, consult official sources.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Selected Chabad centres in the Zionist entity
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Chabad of Eged Jerusalem]] || Jerusalem || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad of Rechavia]] || Jerusalem || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad of Kiryat Arba]] || Hebron || Community centre
|-
| [[Agudat Kiryat Chabad-Chabad of Safed]] || Safed || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad of Haifa]] || Haifa || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad of Or Yehuda]] || Or Yehuda || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad of Tzefat]] || Tzefat || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad of El'ad]] || El'ad || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad of Rishon LeZion]] || Rishon LeZion || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Jerusalem]] || Jerusalem || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Tel Aviv-Yafo]] || Tel Aviv-Yafo || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Haifa]] || Haifa || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Safed]] || Safed || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Beersheva]] || Beersheva || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Netanya]] || Netanya || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Ashdod]] || Ashdod || Community centre
|-
| [[Chabad Lubavitch of Ashkelon]] || Ashkelon || Community centre
|}

=== Yeshivot ===
[[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad]] operates numerous yeshivot under the [[Tomchei Temimim|Tomchei Tmimim]] network and affiliates.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Chabad yeshivot in the Zionist entity
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Yeshiva Toras Emes Chabad Lubavitch]] || Unknown || Yeshiva
|-
| [[Yeshiva Tzeirei Hashluchim Tzfat (Chabad)]] || Tzfat || Yeshiva
|-
| [[Toras Emes Chabad Lubavitch]] || Unknown || Yeshiva
|-
| [[Yeshivas Tomchei Tmimim Elad]] || El'ad || Yeshiva
|-
| [[Kollel Or Menachem]] || El'ad || Kollel
|-
| [[Yeshiva Temimei Derech]] || Safed || Yeshiva
|-
| [[Yeshiva Chabad of Tzfat]] || Tzfat || Yeshiva
|-
| [[Tomchei Tmimim yeshivot affiliated with Chabad in Kfar Chabad]] || Kfar Chabad || Yeshiva network
|}

=== Nurseries and daycares ===
[[Colel Chabad]] manages the Larissa Blavatnik Network of Daycare Centers, with 16 locations serving nearly 1000 children from needy families.<ref name="colel" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Colel Chabad nurseries and daycares in the Zionist entity
! Name !! Location !! Type
|-
| [[Myra York Daycare Center]] || Afula || Nursery
|-
| [[Stieglitz Educational Campus]] || Ashdod || Nursery
|-
| [[Luxenberg Early Childhood Center]] || Ashdod || Nursery
|-
| [[Chaya Mushka Day Care Center]] || Ashkelon || Nursery
|-
| [[Steve Kramer Day Care Center]] || Beitar || Nursery
|-
| [[Barry and Miriam Menin Early Childhood Center]] || Beitar || Nursery
|-
| [[Bigman Family Day Care Center]] || Karmiel || Nursery
|-
| [[Larissa Blavatnik Network of Daycare Centers]] || Various (16 locations) || Nursery network
|-
| [[Tchelet Mordechai Campus]] || Beersheva || Nursery
|-
| [[Ohr Chaya and Larisa Blavatnik chain]] || Various || Nursery chain
|-
| [[Colel Chabad Daycare in Rishon LeZion]] || Rishon LeZion || Nursery
|-
| [[Colel Chabad Daycare in Safed]] || Safed || Nursery
|-
| [[Colel Chabad Daycare in Beitar Illit]] || Beitar Illit || Nursery
|}

== Countries with no documented Chabad presence ==

The following West Asian/Middle Eastern countries show no evidence of official [[Chabad-Lubavitch]] centres, emissaries, or institutions in current directories:
* Algeria — No centre; historical Jewish population fled in the 1960s, with no subsequent Chabad establishment.<ref name="jvlalgeria">Jewish Virtual Library, [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/algeria-virtual-jewish-history-tour "Algeria Virtual Jewish History Tour"] (adapted from the ''Encyclopaedia Judaica''), accessed 18 October 2026. It reports that by the end of July 1962, 70,000 Jews had left for France and another 5,000 for Israel, and that "By 1969 fewer than one thousand Jews remained in Algeria".</ref><ref name="lubavitchafrica">Chabad-Lubavitch World Headquarters, [https://www.lubavitch.com/centers/africa "Africa – Centers"] ''Lubavitch.com'', accessed 18 October 2026 (Chabad-side). The directory lists 10 African countries with Chabad centres; Algeria is not among them.</ref>

* Bahrain — No official centre; occasional past royal invitations noted but no ongoing Chabad operation.<ref name="chabad2008">Chabad.org, [https://www.chabad.org/news/article_cdo/aid/766017/jewish/A-Royal-Invitation-in-New-York.htm King of Bahrain Extends Jewish Communal Welcome During State Visit] ''Chabad.org'', November 10, 2008.</ref> For instance, in 2008, King [[Hamad bin Issa al-Khalifa]] extended a personal invitation to [[Chabad-Lubavitch]] Rabbi [[Levi Shemtov]] during a state visit to New York, emphasising welcome for all expatriate Bahrainis regardless of religion.<ref name="chabad2008" /> Reports suggest that while Bahrain hosts a small Jewish community and a renovated synagogue, no dedicated [[Chabad-Lubavitch]] emissary or institution has been established, with occasional assistance from regional rabbis such as those in the United Arab Emirates for events like funerals.<ref name="jns2020">JNS.org, [https://www.jns.org/chabad-lubavitch-announces-emissary-to-united-arab-emirates Chabad-Lubavitch announces emissary to United Arab Emirates] ''JNS.org'', November 1, 2020.</ref> Current directories list no centres.<ref>Chabad.org, [https://www.chabad.org/jewish-centers/country/Bahrain Chabad Centers in Bahrain] ''Chabad.org'', accessed March 2, 2026.</ref>
* Iran — No presence; geopolitical hostility precludes activity.

* Iraq — No official centre; isolated past printing missions reported but no established institution.

* Jordan — No documented Chabad centre.

* Kuwait — No presence.

* Lebanon — No presence.

* Oman — No presence.

* Qatar — No presence.

* Saudi Arabia — No official emissary or centre; needs of any visiting Jews reportedly met externally.<ref>The Times of Israel, [https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-saudi-arabia-a-rabbi-angles-to-lead-a-jewish-community-that-doesnt-exist In Saudi Arabia, a rabbi angles to lead a Jewish community that doesn't exist] ''The Times of Israel'', December 27, 2021.</ref>

* Syria — No presence.

* Yemen — No presence.

== See also ==

[[Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Colel Chabad]]

== External links ==

[https://www.chabad.org/jewish-centers/country/Israel Chabad Centers in Israel]
[https://www.chabad.org/jewish-centers Chabad Global Locator]
[https://colelchabad.org/childcare Colel Chabad Childcare and Nurseries]
[https://chabad.ae Chabad of the United Arab Emirates]
==Notes==
[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Category:Jewish organisations in Asia]]
[[Category:Organisations in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Chabad institutions]]

Chabad Lubavitch of Turkey

2026-10-20T09:31:46Z

David: /* Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States */

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey: Rabbi Mendy Chitrik's Istanbul mission since 2001, which works inside the established Turkish Jewish community and its chief rabbinate, a resort-based centre in Antalya, and the Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States'''}}

{{Infobox organization
| name = Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey
| type = Chabad-Lubavitch emissary operation
| founded = 2001 (arrival of Mendy Chitrik in Istanbul)
| founder = [[Mendy Chitrik]]
| headquarters = Istanbul
| key_people = [[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul; rabbi of the Ashkenazi community; chairman of ARIS); [[Menachem Litzman]] and Shira Litzman (Antalya)
| area_served = Turkey, mainly Istanbul and the Antalya resort area
| affiliations = Works within the Turkish Jewish community under the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Hahambaşı]]; [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
| remarks = Sidebar slot is titled "Chabad of Istanbul"; this country-level page covers it
}}

'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey''' is led by Rabbi [[Mendy Chitrik]], who arrived in Istanbul in 2001 with his wife. In his words, they came "per the request of the Turkish Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> Unlike Chabad missions that set up beside an existing community, Chitrik serves inside the established, mainly Sephardi Turkish Jewish community. He has been rabbi of its small Ashkenazi community since 2003, and runs kosher supervision for the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Turkish chief rabbinate]]'s exports.<ref name="NYJG2023" /><ref name="ARIS" /> He describes Chabad in Turkey as "very much integrated into part of the local Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] calls him "Chabad's emissary in Istanbul".<ref name="JTA2025" /> In 2019 Chitrik founded the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS), a mainly Chabad network of rabbis in Muslim-majority countries, and he chairs it from Istanbul.<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> A second Chabad centre in Antalya, run by Rabbi [[Menachem Litzman]], has served Israeli tourists.<ref name="CHinfo2009" />

== Emissaries and entities ==
* '''[[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul).''' Chitrik says he came to Turkey in 2001, aged 24, "to help the Jewish community with education and other projects", and "eventually" became rabbi of the Ashkenazi community.<ref name="NYJG2023" /> The ''[[The Forward|Forward]]'' describes him as "an emissary of the Chabad movement" who "also serves as the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Turkey".<ref name="Forward2021" /> ''[[Israel Hayom]]'' calls him "chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic community of Istanbul".<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />
* '''[[Menachem Litzman]] (Antalya).''' In 2009 CrownHeights.info reported that "Chabad of Antalya, Turkey, headed by Shliach Rabbi Menachem and Shira Litzman, organized over 10 Chanukah parties in hotels all over Turkey for thousands of Israelis", and handed out menorahs at the airport.<ref name="CHinfo2009" /> In an undated item from around 2009–10, COL quoted Litzman telling Walla! that "we are not afraid" despite Israeli–Turkish tension.<ref name="COLAntalya" />
:''Editor's note: No Turkish registration of a Chabad body was found. The West Asia overview lists Chabad houses in Bodrum, Marmaris and Ankara, but no source for them was found, so they are left out here. The current status of the Antalya centre after 2010 was not confirmed.''

== Relations with the established community and the chief rabbinate ==
Turkey's Jewish community of about 15,000 is overwhelmingly Sephardi. It is led religiously by the Hahambaşı (chief rabbi) and is represented by a lay president.<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="NYJG2023" /> Chabad's place in it is that of a recognised part of the community, not a rival.
* [[Isak Haleva]], Hahambaşı from 2002 until his death on 14 January 2025, was listed by ARIS among its most senior rabbis, above Chitrik's executive board. On Haleva's death Chitrik, "who had known Haleva for over 20 years", told [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] that he "gained the love and appreciation of the entire community".<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="ARIS" />
* [[David Sevi]], elected unopposed in September 2025 and installed at Neve Shalom synagogue in December 2025, "is a member of the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]", according to JNS.<ref name="JNS2025" />
* Five other Istanbul rabbis are listed as ARIS members: three members of the [[Bet Din of Istanbul]], and the rabbis of Beit Israel and of Büyükada (see below).<ref name="ARIS" />
* Chitrik says he is "responsible for the kashrut of the Turkish rabbinate for all exports", acting as "a representative of the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and the Orthodox Union".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> (Chitrik's own account.)
:''Editor's note: No source was found reporting friction between Chabad and the Turkish chief rabbinate. The sources above are mostly Chitrik's own statements, Chabad-side reporting and obituaries. An independent account from the Turkish community (e.g. Şalom newspaper or the community's own statements) was not consulted.''

== Relations with the Turkish state and Israel ==
* COLlive reported in November 2022 on a regional visit to Bahrain, Israel, the UAE and Turkey by Rabbi [[Levi Shemtov]] of [[American Friends of Lubavitch]]. The emissaries taking part included Chitrik. It said the dignitaries they met included "His Excellency Hasan Doğan, Chief of Staff of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye), following a meeting which occurred earlier with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan".<ref name="COLlive2022" /> (Chabad-side. The wording does not make clear who attended the earlier meeting with [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]].)
* [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]] issued a Hanukkah message to Turkish Jews in 2016, through the Presidential Press Office. It called Jewish citizens an "inseparable part of our society".<ref name="AA2016" /> In January 2025 he called the community's lay leaders to offer condolences on Haleva's death.<ref name="JTA2025" />
* JTA notes that since October 2023 Turkey "has endorsed Hamas and cut off trade with Israel".<ref name="JTA2025" />
* In November 2024 Turkey's [[National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)|National Intelligence Organization]] and police arrested in Istanbul the three suspects in the murder of the UAE Chabad emissary [[Zvi Kogan]], and extradited them to the UAE, according to TRT World. See [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="TRT2024" />
* In 2021 Chitrik said that after a social media user made a false accusation against him, the authorities questioned the man and opened "an official complaint against him", although Chitrik had not filed one.<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />

== Funding and donors ==
Chitrik said in 2023: "The Chabad operation is funded by donations coming from passersby and local donors". He said the Istanbul Chabad house hosts "some 70 guests every Shabbat".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> No donors are named in the sources, and no accounts were found.

== Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States ==
[[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS) was set up by Chitrik in 2019. The ''Forward'' reported in March 2021 that he "founded ARIS 18 months ago", and ''Israel Hayom'' said that "the majority" of its 45 rabbis "are associated with Chabad".<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> ARIS lists these rabbis for Turkey:<ref name="ARIS" />
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role as listed by ARIS !! Affiliation
|-
| [[Mendy Chitrik]] || Chairman; Rabbi of the Ashkenazi community of Istanbul || Chabad emissary
|-
| [[Isak Haleva]] (d. 2025) || Hahambashi, Chief Rabbi of Turkey (senior tier) || Turkish Sephardi chief rabbinate
|-
| Izak Alaluf || Rabbi of the Kemerburgaz community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| Isak Peres || Rabbi of the Yeniköy community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| [[Naftali Haleva]] || Etz Ahayim, Ortaköy; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate (son of Isak Haleva)
|-
| David Zvi || Rabbi of Beit Israel, Istanbul || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Avraham Gershon || Hesed Leavraam, Büyükada || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Mendel Porush || Rabbi for kashrut, Istanbul || Not established
|}
[[David Sevi]], chief rabbi since 2025, is described by JNS as an ARIS member, but he does not appear under that spelling on the ARIS list, where is he given as Zvi.<ref name="JNS2025" />

Only Chitrik is confirmed as Chabad. The others are listed with community roles, and no Chabad link was found for them. ARIS's Turkish membership is mainly the established Turkish rabbinate. "David Zvi" on the ARIS list is presumed to be the same person as David Sevi.

== Timeline ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Event
|-
| 2001 || [[Mendy Chitrik]] arrives in Istanbul at the request of the Turkish Jewish community (his account)
|-
| 2002 || [[Isak Haleva]] becomes Hahambaşı
|-
| 2003 || Chitrik becomes rabbi of the Ashkenazi community
|-
| 2009 || Chabad of Antalya ([[Menachem Litzman]]) holds Hanukkah events for Israeli tourists
|-
| 2019 || Chitrik founds the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
|-
| Nov 2022 || Chitrik and [[Levi Shemtov]] meet the presidential chief of staff, Hasan Doğan
|-
| Nov 2024 || Kogan murder suspects arrested in Istanbul and extradited to the UAE
|-
| 14 Jan 2025 || Death of Isak Haleva
|-
| Dec 2025 || [[David Sevi]], an ARIS member, installed as Hahambaşı
|}

== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch in West Asia]]
* [[Zionist connections in Turkey]]
* [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
* [[Chabad Lubavitch of Cyprus]]
* [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]]
* [[Chabad in Iran]]

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="NYJG2023">Meyer Harroch, [https://newyorkjewishguide.com/2023/01/12/getting-to-know-the-jewish-community-in-turkey-a-conversation-with-rabbi-mendy-chitrik "Getting to know the Jewish Community in Turkey: A Conversation with Rabbi Mendy Chitrik"], ''New York Jewish Guide'', 12 January 2023. Interview, Chitrik's own words; written on a press trip sponsored by the Turkish tourism agency.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2025">David I. Klein, [https://www.jta.org/2025/01/15/obituaries/isak-haleva-turkeys-chief-rabbi-and-face-of-jewish-minority-dies-at-84 "Isak Haleva, Turkey's chief rabbi and face of Jewish minority, dies at 84"], Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 15 January 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="JNS2025">JNS Staff, [https://www.jns.org/jewish-life/turkish-jews-install-david-sevi-as-new-chief-rabbi "Turkish Jews install David Sevi as new chief rabbi"], JNS, 5 December 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="Forward2021">David Ian Klein, [https://forward.com/news/466368/matzah-in-beirut-or-a-seder-in-samarkand-these-rabbis-are-making-it-happen/ "Matzah in Beirut or a Seder in Samarkand? These rabbis are making it happen."], ''The Forward'', 22 March 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="IsraelHayom2021">JNS and ILH Staff, [https://www.israelhayom.com/2021/10/29/rabbinical-alliance-bolsters-jewish-community-in-islamic-states/ "Rabbinical alliance bolsters Jewish community in Islamic states"], ''Israel Hayom'', 29 October 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="CHinfo2009">[https://crownheights.info/shlichus/23095/israelis-celebrate-chanukah-with-chabad-of-turkey/ "Israelis Celebrate Chanukah with Chabad of Turkey"], CrownHeights.info, 21 December 2009. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="COLAntalya">[https://col.org.il/news/50470 "השליח באנטליה ל'וואלה': 'אנחנו לא חוששים מהמתיחות'"] ("The emissary in Antalya to Walla: 'We are not afraid of the tension'"), COL (col.org.il), undated (c. 2009–10). Chabad-side; in Hebrew.</ref>
<ref name="COLlive2022">[https://collive.com/shluchim-well-received-in-mideast-capitals/ "Shluchim Well Received in Mideast Capitals"], COLlive, 11 November 2022. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="AA2016">Enes Kaplan, [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture-and-art/turkeys-erdogan-releases-message-honoring-hanukkah/713827 "Turkey's Erdogan releases message honoring Hanukkah"], Anadolu Agency, 25 December 2016. Turkish state news agency.</ref>
<ref name="TRT2024">Alican Tekingunduz, [https://www.trtworld.com/article/18236910 "Turkish intelligence nabs rabbi murderers, extradites to UAE"], TRT World, November 2024. Turkish state broadcaster.</ref>
<ref name="ARIS">Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States, [https://www.rabbisalliance.org/about/the-rabbis/ "ARIS Rabbis"], accessed 19 October 2026. Self-published; mainly Chabad-led.</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Turkey]]

Chabad Lubavitch of Turkey

2026-10-20T09:30:59Z

David: /* Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States */

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey: Rabbi Mendy Chitrik's Istanbul mission since 2001, which works inside the established Turkish Jewish community and its chief rabbinate, a resort-based centre in Antalya, and the Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States'''}}

{{Infobox organization
| name = Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey
| type = Chabad-Lubavitch emissary operation
| founded = 2001 (arrival of Mendy Chitrik in Istanbul)
| founder = [[Mendy Chitrik]]
| headquarters = Istanbul
| key_people = [[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul; rabbi of the Ashkenazi community; chairman of ARIS); [[Menachem Litzman]] and Shira Litzman (Antalya)
| area_served = Turkey, mainly Istanbul and the Antalya resort area
| affiliations = Works within the Turkish Jewish community under the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Hahambaşı]]; [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
| remarks = Sidebar slot is titled "Chabad of Istanbul"; this country-level page covers it
}}

'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey''' is led by Rabbi [[Mendy Chitrik]], who arrived in Istanbul in 2001 with his wife. In his words, they came "per the request of the Turkish Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> Unlike Chabad missions that set up beside an existing community, Chitrik serves inside the established, mainly Sephardi Turkish Jewish community. He has been rabbi of its small Ashkenazi community since 2003, and runs kosher supervision for the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Turkish chief rabbinate]]'s exports.<ref name="NYJG2023" /><ref name="ARIS" /> He describes Chabad in Turkey as "very much integrated into part of the local Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] calls him "Chabad's emissary in Istanbul".<ref name="JTA2025" /> In 2019 Chitrik founded the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS), a mainly Chabad network of rabbis in Muslim-majority countries, and he chairs it from Istanbul.<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> A second Chabad centre in Antalya, run by Rabbi [[Menachem Litzman]], has served Israeli tourists.<ref name="CHinfo2009" />

== Emissaries and entities ==
* '''[[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul).''' Chitrik says he came to Turkey in 2001, aged 24, "to help the Jewish community with education and other projects", and "eventually" became rabbi of the Ashkenazi community.<ref name="NYJG2023" /> The ''[[The Forward|Forward]]'' describes him as "an emissary of the Chabad movement" who "also serves as the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Turkey".<ref name="Forward2021" /> ''[[Israel Hayom]]'' calls him "chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic community of Istanbul".<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />
* '''[[Menachem Litzman]] (Antalya).''' In 2009 CrownHeights.info reported that "Chabad of Antalya, Turkey, headed by Shliach Rabbi Menachem and Shira Litzman, organized over 10 Chanukah parties in hotels all over Turkey for thousands of Israelis", and handed out menorahs at the airport.<ref name="CHinfo2009" /> In an undated item from around 2009–10, COL quoted Litzman telling Walla! that "we are not afraid" despite Israeli–Turkish tension.<ref name="COLAntalya" />
:''Editor's note: No Turkish registration of a Chabad body was found. The West Asia overview lists Chabad houses in Bodrum, Marmaris and Ankara, but no source for them was found, so they are left out here. The current status of the Antalya centre after 2010 was not confirmed.''

== Relations with the established community and the chief rabbinate ==
Turkey's Jewish community of about 15,000 is overwhelmingly Sephardi. It is led religiously by the Hahambaşı (chief rabbi) and is represented by a lay president.<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="NYJG2023" /> Chabad's place in it is that of a recognised part of the community, not a rival.
* [[Isak Haleva]], Hahambaşı from 2002 until his death on 14 January 2025, was listed by ARIS among its most senior rabbis, above Chitrik's executive board. On Haleva's death Chitrik, "who had known Haleva for over 20 years", told [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] that he "gained the love and appreciation of the entire community".<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="ARIS" />
* [[David Sevi]], elected unopposed in September 2025 and installed at Neve Shalom synagogue in December 2025, "is a member of the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]", according to JNS.<ref name="JNS2025" />
* Five other Istanbul rabbis are listed as ARIS members: three members of the [[Bet Din of Istanbul]], and the rabbis of Beit Israel and of Büyükada (see below).<ref name="ARIS" />
* Chitrik says he is "responsible for the kashrut of the Turkish rabbinate for all exports", acting as "a representative of the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and the Orthodox Union".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> (Chitrik's own account.)
:''Editor's note: No source was found reporting friction between Chabad and the Turkish chief rabbinate. The sources above are mostly Chitrik's own statements, Chabad-side reporting and obituaries. An independent account from the Turkish community (e.g. Şalom newspaper or the community's own statements) was not consulted.''

== Relations with the Turkish state and Israel ==
* COLlive reported in November 2022 on a regional visit to Bahrain, Israel, the UAE and Turkey by Rabbi [[Levi Shemtov]] of [[American Friends of Lubavitch]]. The emissaries taking part included Chitrik. It said the dignitaries they met included "His Excellency Hasan Doğan, Chief of Staff of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye), following a meeting which occurred earlier with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan".<ref name="COLlive2022" /> (Chabad-side. The wording does not make clear who attended the earlier meeting with [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]].)
* [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]] issued a Hanukkah message to Turkish Jews in 2016, through the Presidential Press Office. It called Jewish citizens an "inseparable part of our society".<ref name="AA2016" /> In January 2025 he called the community's lay leaders to offer condolences on Haleva's death.<ref name="JTA2025" />
* JTA notes that since October 2023 Turkey "has endorsed Hamas and cut off trade with Israel".<ref name="JTA2025" />
* In November 2024 Turkey's [[National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)|National Intelligence Organization]] and police arrested in Istanbul the three suspects in the murder of the UAE Chabad emissary [[Zvi Kogan]], and extradited them to the UAE, according to TRT World. See [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="TRT2024" />
* In 2021 Chitrik said that after a social media user made a false accusation against him, the authorities questioned the man and opened "an official complaint against him", although Chitrik had not filed one.<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />

== Funding and donors ==
Chitrik said in 2023: "The Chabad operation is funded by donations coming from passersby and local donors". He said the Istanbul Chabad house hosts "some 70 guests every Shabbat".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> No donors are named in the sources, and no accounts were found.

== Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States ==
[[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS) was set up by Chitrik in 2019. The ''Forward'' reported in March 2021 that he "founded ARIS 18 months ago", and ''Israel Hayom'' said that "the majority" of its 45 rabbis "are associated with Chabad".<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> ARIS lists these rabbis for Turkey:<ref name="ARIS" />
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role as listed by ARIS !! Affiliation
|-
| [[Mendy Chitrik]] || Chairman; Rabbi of the Ashkenazi community of Istanbul || Chabad emissary
|-
| [[Isak Haleva]] (d. 2025) || Hahambashi, Chief Rabbi of Turkey (senior tier) || Turkish Sephardi chief rabbinate
|-
| Izak Alaluf || Rabbi of the Kemerburgaz community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| Isak Peres || Rabbi of the Yeniköy community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| [[Naftali Haleva]] || Etz Ahayim, Ortaköy; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate (son of Isak Haleva)
|-
| David Zvi || Rabbi of Beit Israel, Istanbul || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Avraham Gershon || Hesed Leavraam, Büyükada || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Mendel Porush || Rabbi for kashrut, Istanbul || Not established
|}
[[David Sevi]], chief rabbi since 2025, is described by JNS as an ARIS member, but he does not appear under that spelling on the ARIS list, where is he given as Zvi.<ref name="JNS2025" />
:''Editor's note: Only Chitrik is confirmed as Chabad. The others are listed with community roles, and no Chabad link was found for them. ARIS's Turkish membership is mainly the established Turkish rabbinate. Whether "David Zvi" on the ARIS list is the same person as David Sevi was not established.''

== Timeline ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Event
|-
| 2001 || [[Mendy Chitrik]] arrives in Istanbul at the request of the Turkish Jewish community (his account)
|-
| 2002 || [[Isak Haleva]] becomes Hahambaşı
|-
| 2003 || Chitrik becomes rabbi of the Ashkenazi community
|-
| 2009 || Chabad of Antalya ([[Menachem Litzman]]) holds Hanukkah events for Israeli tourists
|-
| 2019 || Chitrik founds the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
|-
| Nov 2022 || Chitrik and [[Levi Shemtov]] meet the presidential chief of staff, Hasan Doğan
|-
| Nov 2024 || Kogan murder suspects arrested in Istanbul and extradited to the UAE
|-
| 14 Jan 2025 || Death of Isak Haleva
|-
| Dec 2025 || [[David Sevi]], an ARIS member, installed as Hahambaşı
|}

== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch in West Asia]]
* [[Zionist connections in Turkey]]
* [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
* [[Chabad Lubavitch of Cyprus]]
* [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]]
* [[Chabad in Iran]]

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="NYJG2023">Meyer Harroch, [https://newyorkjewishguide.com/2023/01/12/getting-to-know-the-jewish-community-in-turkey-a-conversation-with-rabbi-mendy-chitrik "Getting to know the Jewish Community in Turkey: A Conversation with Rabbi Mendy Chitrik"], ''New York Jewish Guide'', 12 January 2023. Interview, Chitrik's own words; written on a press trip sponsored by the Turkish tourism agency.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2025">David I. Klein, [https://www.jta.org/2025/01/15/obituaries/isak-haleva-turkeys-chief-rabbi-and-face-of-jewish-minority-dies-at-84 "Isak Haleva, Turkey's chief rabbi and face of Jewish minority, dies at 84"], Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 15 January 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="JNS2025">JNS Staff, [https://www.jns.org/jewish-life/turkish-jews-install-david-sevi-as-new-chief-rabbi "Turkish Jews install David Sevi as new chief rabbi"], JNS, 5 December 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="Forward2021">David Ian Klein, [https://forward.com/news/466368/matzah-in-beirut-or-a-seder-in-samarkand-these-rabbis-are-making-it-happen/ "Matzah in Beirut or a Seder in Samarkand? These rabbis are making it happen."], ''The Forward'', 22 March 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="IsraelHayom2021">JNS and ILH Staff, [https://www.israelhayom.com/2021/10/29/rabbinical-alliance-bolsters-jewish-community-in-islamic-states/ "Rabbinical alliance bolsters Jewish community in Islamic states"], ''Israel Hayom'', 29 October 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="CHinfo2009">[https://crownheights.info/shlichus/23095/israelis-celebrate-chanukah-with-chabad-of-turkey/ "Israelis Celebrate Chanukah with Chabad of Turkey"], CrownHeights.info, 21 December 2009. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="COLAntalya">[https://col.org.il/news/50470 "השליח באנטליה ל'וואלה': 'אנחנו לא חוששים מהמתיחות'"] ("The emissary in Antalya to Walla: 'We are not afraid of the tension'"), COL (col.org.il), undated (c. 2009–10). Chabad-side; in Hebrew.</ref>
<ref name="COLlive2022">[https://collive.com/shluchim-well-received-in-mideast-capitals/ "Shluchim Well Received in Mideast Capitals"], COLlive, 11 November 2022. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="AA2016">Enes Kaplan, [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture-and-art/turkeys-erdogan-releases-message-honoring-hanukkah/713827 "Turkey's Erdogan releases message honoring Hanukkah"], Anadolu Agency, 25 December 2016. Turkish state news agency.</ref>
<ref name="TRT2024">Alican Tekingunduz, [https://www.trtworld.com/article/18236910 "Turkish intelligence nabs rabbi murderers, extradites to UAE"], TRT World, November 2024. Turkish state broadcaster.</ref>
<ref name="ARIS">Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States, [https://www.rabbisalliance.org/about/the-rabbis/ "ARIS Rabbis"], accessed 19 October 2026. Self-published; mainly Chabad-led.</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Turkey]]

Chabad Lubavitch of Turkey

2026-10-20T09:30:23Z

David: /* Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States */

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey: Rabbi Mendy Chitrik's Istanbul mission since 2001, which works inside the established Turkish Jewish community and its chief rabbinate, a resort-based centre in Antalya, and the Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States'''}}

{{Infobox organization
| name = Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey
| type = Chabad-Lubavitch emissary operation
| founded = 2001 (arrival of Mendy Chitrik in Istanbul)
| founder = [[Mendy Chitrik]]
| headquarters = Istanbul
| key_people = [[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul; rabbi of the Ashkenazi community; chairman of ARIS); [[Menachem Litzman]] and Shira Litzman (Antalya)
| area_served = Turkey, mainly Istanbul and the Antalya resort area
| affiliations = Works within the Turkish Jewish community under the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Hahambaşı]]; [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
| remarks = Sidebar slot is titled "Chabad of Istanbul"; this country-level page covers it
}}

'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey''' is led by Rabbi [[Mendy Chitrik]], who arrived in Istanbul in 2001 with his wife. In his words, they came "per the request of the Turkish Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> Unlike Chabad missions that set up beside an existing community, Chitrik serves inside the established, mainly Sephardi Turkish Jewish community. He has been rabbi of its small Ashkenazi community since 2003, and runs kosher supervision for the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Turkish chief rabbinate]]'s exports.<ref name="NYJG2023" /><ref name="ARIS" /> He describes Chabad in Turkey as "very much integrated into part of the local Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] calls him "Chabad's emissary in Istanbul".<ref name="JTA2025" /> In 2019 Chitrik founded the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS), a mainly Chabad network of rabbis in Muslim-majority countries, and he chairs it from Istanbul.<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> A second Chabad centre in Antalya, run by Rabbi [[Menachem Litzman]], has served Israeli tourists.<ref name="CHinfo2009" />

== Emissaries and entities ==
* '''[[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul).''' Chitrik says he came to Turkey in 2001, aged 24, "to help the Jewish community with education and other projects", and "eventually" became rabbi of the Ashkenazi community.<ref name="NYJG2023" /> The ''[[The Forward|Forward]]'' describes him as "an emissary of the Chabad movement" who "also serves as the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Turkey".<ref name="Forward2021" /> ''[[Israel Hayom]]'' calls him "chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic community of Istanbul".<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />
* '''[[Menachem Litzman]] (Antalya).''' In 2009 CrownHeights.info reported that "Chabad of Antalya, Turkey, headed by Shliach Rabbi Menachem and Shira Litzman, organized over 10 Chanukah parties in hotels all over Turkey for thousands of Israelis", and handed out menorahs at the airport.<ref name="CHinfo2009" /> In an undated item from around 2009–10, COL quoted Litzman telling Walla! that "we are not afraid" despite Israeli–Turkish tension.<ref name="COLAntalya" />
:''Editor's note: No Turkish registration of a Chabad body was found. The West Asia overview lists Chabad houses in Bodrum, Marmaris and Ankara, but no source for them was found, so they are left out here. The current status of the Antalya centre after 2010 was not confirmed.''

== Relations with the established community and the chief rabbinate ==
Turkey's Jewish community of about 15,000 is overwhelmingly Sephardi. It is led religiously by the Hahambaşı (chief rabbi) and is represented by a lay president.<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="NYJG2023" /> Chabad's place in it is that of a recognised part of the community, not a rival.
* [[Isak Haleva]], Hahambaşı from 2002 until his death on 14 January 2025, was listed by ARIS among its most senior rabbis, above Chitrik's executive board. On Haleva's death Chitrik, "who had known Haleva for over 20 years", told [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] that he "gained the love and appreciation of the entire community".<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="ARIS" />
* [[David Sevi]], elected unopposed in September 2025 and installed at Neve Shalom synagogue in December 2025, "is a member of the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]", according to JNS.<ref name="JNS2025" />
* Five other Istanbul rabbis are listed as ARIS members: three members of the [[Bet Din of Istanbul]], and the rabbis of Beit Israel and of Büyükada (see below).<ref name="ARIS" />
* Chitrik says he is "responsible for the kashrut of the Turkish rabbinate for all exports", acting as "a representative of the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and the Orthodox Union".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> (Chitrik's own account.)
:''Editor's note: No source was found reporting friction between Chabad and the Turkish chief rabbinate. The sources above are mostly Chitrik's own statements, Chabad-side reporting and obituaries. An independent account from the Turkish community (e.g. Şalom newspaper or the community's own statements) was not consulted.''

== Relations with the Turkish state and Israel ==
* COLlive reported in November 2022 on a regional visit to Bahrain, Israel, the UAE and Turkey by Rabbi [[Levi Shemtov]] of [[American Friends of Lubavitch]]. The emissaries taking part included Chitrik. It said the dignitaries they met included "His Excellency Hasan Doğan, Chief of Staff of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye), following a meeting which occurred earlier with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan".<ref name="COLlive2022" /> (Chabad-side. The wording does not make clear who attended the earlier meeting with [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]].)
* [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]] issued a Hanukkah message to Turkish Jews in 2016, through the Presidential Press Office. It called Jewish citizens an "inseparable part of our society".<ref name="AA2016" /> In January 2025 he called the community's lay leaders to offer condolences on Haleva's death.<ref name="JTA2025" />
* JTA notes that since October 2023 Turkey "has endorsed Hamas and cut off trade with Israel".<ref name="JTA2025" />
* In November 2024 Turkey's [[National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)|National Intelligence Organization]] and police arrested in Istanbul the three suspects in the murder of the UAE Chabad emissary [[Zvi Kogan]], and extradited them to the UAE, according to TRT World. See [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="TRT2024" />
* In 2021 Chitrik said that after a social media user made a false accusation against him, the authorities questioned the man and opened "an official complaint against him", although Chitrik had not filed one.<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />

== Funding and donors ==
Chitrik said in 2023: "The Chabad operation is funded by donations coming from passersby and local donors". He said the Istanbul Chabad house hosts "some 70 guests every Shabbat".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> No donors are named in the sources, and no accounts were found.

== Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States ==
[[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS) was set up by Chitrik in 2019. The ''Forward'' reported in March 2021 that he "founded ARIS 18 months ago", and ''Israel Hayom'' said that "the majority" of its 45 rabbis "are associated with Chabad".<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> ARIS lists these rabbis for Turkey:<ref name="ARIS" />
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role as listed by ARIS !! Affiliation
|-
| [[Mendy Chitrik]] || Chairman; Rabbi of the Ashkenazi community of Istanbul || Chabad emissary
|-
| [[Isak Haleva]] (d. 2025) || Hahambashi, Chief Rabbi of Turkey (senior tier) || Turkish Sephardi chief rabbinate
|-
| Izak Alaluf || Rabbi of the Kemerburgaz community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| Isak Peres || Rabbi of the Yeniköy community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| [[Naftali Haleva]] || Etz Ahayim, Ortaköy; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate (son of Isak Haleva)
|-
| David Zvi || Rabbi of Beit Israel, Istanbul || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Avraham Gershon || Hesed Leavraam, Büyükada || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Mendel Porush || Rabbi for kashrut, Istanbul || Not established
|}
[[David Sevi]], chief rabbi since 2025, is described by JNS as an ARIS member, but he does not appear under that spelling on the ARIS list.<ref name="JNS2025" />
:''Editor's note: Only Chitrik is confirmed as Chabad. The others are listed with community roles, and no Chabad link was found for them. ARIS's Turkish membership is mainly the established Turkish rabbinate. Whether "David Zvi" on the ARIS list is the same person as David Sevi was not established.''

== Timeline ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Event
|-
| 2001 || [[Mendy Chitrik]] arrives in Istanbul at the request of the Turkish Jewish community (his account)
|-
| 2002 || [[Isak Haleva]] becomes Hahambaşı
|-
| 2003 || Chitrik becomes rabbi of the Ashkenazi community
|-
| 2009 || Chabad of Antalya ([[Menachem Litzman]]) holds Hanukkah events for Israeli tourists
|-
| 2019 || Chitrik founds the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
|-
| Nov 2022 || Chitrik and [[Levi Shemtov]] meet the presidential chief of staff, Hasan Doğan
|-
| Nov 2024 || Kogan murder suspects arrested in Istanbul and extradited to the UAE
|-
| 14 Jan 2025 || Death of Isak Haleva
|-
| Dec 2025 || [[David Sevi]], an ARIS member, installed as Hahambaşı
|}

== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch in West Asia]]
* [[Zionist connections in Turkey]]
* [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
* [[Chabad Lubavitch of Cyprus]]
* [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]]
* [[Chabad in Iran]]

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="NYJG2023">Meyer Harroch, [https://newyorkjewishguide.com/2023/01/12/getting-to-know-the-jewish-community-in-turkey-a-conversation-with-rabbi-mendy-chitrik "Getting to know the Jewish Community in Turkey: A Conversation with Rabbi Mendy Chitrik"], ''New York Jewish Guide'', 12 January 2023. Interview, Chitrik's own words; written on a press trip sponsored by the Turkish tourism agency.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2025">David I. Klein, [https://www.jta.org/2025/01/15/obituaries/isak-haleva-turkeys-chief-rabbi-and-face-of-jewish-minority-dies-at-84 "Isak Haleva, Turkey's chief rabbi and face of Jewish minority, dies at 84"], Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 15 January 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="JNS2025">JNS Staff, [https://www.jns.org/jewish-life/turkish-jews-install-david-sevi-as-new-chief-rabbi "Turkish Jews install David Sevi as new chief rabbi"], JNS, 5 December 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="Forward2021">David Ian Klein, [https://forward.com/news/466368/matzah-in-beirut-or-a-seder-in-samarkand-these-rabbis-are-making-it-happen/ "Matzah in Beirut or a Seder in Samarkand? These rabbis are making it happen."], ''The Forward'', 22 March 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="IsraelHayom2021">JNS and ILH Staff, [https://www.israelhayom.com/2021/10/29/rabbinical-alliance-bolsters-jewish-community-in-islamic-states/ "Rabbinical alliance bolsters Jewish community in Islamic states"], ''Israel Hayom'', 29 October 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="CHinfo2009">[https://crownheights.info/shlichus/23095/israelis-celebrate-chanukah-with-chabad-of-turkey/ "Israelis Celebrate Chanukah with Chabad of Turkey"], CrownHeights.info, 21 December 2009. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="COLAntalya">[https://col.org.il/news/50470 "השליח באנטליה ל'וואלה': 'אנחנו לא חוששים מהמתיחות'"] ("The emissary in Antalya to Walla: 'We are not afraid of the tension'"), COL (col.org.il), undated (c. 2009–10). Chabad-side; in Hebrew.</ref>
<ref name="COLlive2022">[https://collive.com/shluchim-well-received-in-mideast-capitals/ "Shluchim Well Received in Mideast Capitals"], COLlive, 11 November 2022. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="AA2016">Enes Kaplan, [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture-and-art/turkeys-erdogan-releases-message-honoring-hanukkah/713827 "Turkey's Erdogan releases message honoring Hanukkah"], Anadolu Agency, 25 December 2016. Turkish state news agency.</ref>
<ref name="TRT2024">Alican Tekingunduz, [https://www.trtworld.com/article/18236910 "Turkish intelligence nabs rabbi murderers, extradites to UAE"], TRT World, November 2024. Turkish state broadcaster.</ref>
<ref name="ARIS">Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States, [https://www.rabbisalliance.org/about/the-rabbis/ "ARIS Rabbis"], accessed 19 October 2026. Self-published; mainly Chabad-led.</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Turkey]]

Chabad Lubavitch of Turkey

2026-10-20T09:29:25Z

David: /* Funding and donors */

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey: Rabbi Mendy Chitrik's Istanbul mission since 2001, which works inside the established Turkish Jewish community and its chief rabbinate, a resort-based centre in Antalya, and the Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States'''}}

{{Infobox organization
| name = Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey
| type = Chabad-Lubavitch emissary operation
| founded = 2001 (arrival of Mendy Chitrik in Istanbul)
| founder = [[Mendy Chitrik]]
| headquarters = Istanbul
| key_people = [[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul; rabbi of the Ashkenazi community; chairman of ARIS); [[Menachem Litzman]] and Shira Litzman (Antalya)
| area_served = Turkey, mainly Istanbul and the Antalya resort area
| affiliations = Works within the Turkish Jewish community under the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Hahambaşı]]; [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
| remarks = Sidebar slot is titled "Chabad of Istanbul"; this country-level page covers it
}}

'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey''' is led by Rabbi [[Mendy Chitrik]], who arrived in Istanbul in 2001 with his wife. In his words, they came "per the request of the Turkish Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> Unlike Chabad missions that set up beside an existing community, Chitrik serves inside the established, mainly Sephardi Turkish Jewish community. He has been rabbi of its small Ashkenazi community since 2003, and runs kosher supervision for the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Turkish chief rabbinate]]'s exports.<ref name="NYJG2023" /><ref name="ARIS" /> He describes Chabad in Turkey as "very much integrated into part of the local Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] calls him "Chabad's emissary in Istanbul".<ref name="JTA2025" /> In 2019 Chitrik founded the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS), a mainly Chabad network of rabbis in Muslim-majority countries, and he chairs it from Istanbul.<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> A second Chabad centre in Antalya, run by Rabbi [[Menachem Litzman]], has served Israeli tourists.<ref name="CHinfo2009" />

== Emissaries and entities ==
* '''[[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul).''' Chitrik says he came to Turkey in 2001, aged 24, "to help the Jewish community with education and other projects", and "eventually" became rabbi of the Ashkenazi community.<ref name="NYJG2023" /> The ''[[The Forward|Forward]]'' describes him as "an emissary of the Chabad movement" who "also serves as the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Turkey".<ref name="Forward2021" /> ''[[Israel Hayom]]'' calls him "chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic community of Istanbul".<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />
* '''[[Menachem Litzman]] (Antalya).''' In 2009 CrownHeights.info reported that "Chabad of Antalya, Turkey, headed by Shliach Rabbi Menachem and Shira Litzman, organized over 10 Chanukah parties in hotels all over Turkey for thousands of Israelis", and handed out menorahs at the airport.<ref name="CHinfo2009" /> In an undated item from around 2009–10, COL quoted Litzman telling Walla! that "we are not afraid" despite Israeli–Turkish tension.<ref name="COLAntalya" />
:''Editor's note: No Turkish registration of a Chabad body was found. The West Asia overview lists Chabad houses in Bodrum, Marmaris and Ankara, but no source for them was found, so they are left out here. The current status of the Antalya centre after 2010 was not confirmed.''

== Relations with the established community and the chief rabbinate ==
Turkey's Jewish community of about 15,000 is overwhelmingly Sephardi. It is led religiously by the Hahambaşı (chief rabbi) and is represented by a lay president.<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="NYJG2023" /> Chabad's place in it is that of a recognised part of the community, not a rival.
* [[Isak Haleva]], Hahambaşı from 2002 until his death on 14 January 2025, was listed by ARIS among its most senior rabbis, above Chitrik's executive board. On Haleva's death Chitrik, "who had known Haleva for over 20 years", told [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] that he "gained the love and appreciation of the entire community".<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="ARIS" />
* [[David Sevi]], elected unopposed in September 2025 and installed at Neve Shalom synagogue in December 2025, "is a member of the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]", according to JNS.<ref name="JNS2025" />
* Five other Istanbul rabbis are listed as ARIS members: three members of the [[Bet Din of Istanbul]], and the rabbis of Beit Israel and of Büyükada (see below).<ref name="ARIS" />
* Chitrik says he is "responsible for the kashrut of the Turkish rabbinate for all exports", acting as "a representative of the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and the Orthodox Union".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> (Chitrik's own account.)
:''Editor's note: No source was found reporting friction between Chabad and the Turkish chief rabbinate. The sources above are mostly Chitrik's own statements, Chabad-side reporting and obituaries. An independent account from the Turkish community (e.g. Şalom newspaper or the community's own statements) was not consulted.''

== Relations with the Turkish state and Israel ==
* COLlive reported in November 2022 on a regional visit to Bahrain, Israel, the UAE and Turkey by Rabbi [[Levi Shemtov]] of [[American Friends of Lubavitch]]. The emissaries taking part included Chitrik. It said the dignitaries they met included "His Excellency Hasan Doğan, Chief of Staff of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye), following a meeting which occurred earlier with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan".<ref name="COLlive2022" /> (Chabad-side. The wording does not make clear who attended the earlier meeting with [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]].)
* [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]] issued a Hanukkah message to Turkish Jews in 2016, through the Presidential Press Office. It called Jewish citizens an "inseparable part of our society".<ref name="AA2016" /> In January 2025 he called the community's lay leaders to offer condolences on Haleva's death.<ref name="JTA2025" />
* JTA notes that since October 2023 Turkey "has endorsed Hamas and cut off trade with Israel".<ref name="JTA2025" />
* In November 2024 Turkey's [[National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)|National Intelligence Organization]] and police arrested in Istanbul the three suspects in the murder of the UAE Chabad emissary [[Zvi Kogan]], and extradited them to the UAE, according to TRT World. See [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="TRT2024" />
* In 2021 Chitrik said that after a social media user made a false accusation against him, the authorities questioned the man and opened "an official complaint against him", although Chitrik had not filed one.<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />

== Funding and donors ==
Chitrik said in 2023: "The Chabad operation is funded by donations coming from passersby and local donors". He said the Istanbul Chabad house hosts "some 70 guests every Shabbat".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> No donors are named in the sources, and no accounts were found.

== Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States ==
ARIS was set up by Chitrik in 2019. The ''Forward'' reported in March 2021 that he "founded ARIS 18 months ago", and ''Israel Hayom'' said that "the majority" of its 45 rabbis "are associated with Chabad".<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> ARIS lists these rabbis for Turkey:<ref name="ARIS" />
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role as listed by ARIS !! Affiliation
|-
| [[Mendy Chitrik]] || Chairman; Rabbi of the Ashkenazi community of Istanbul || Chabad emissary
|-
| [[Isak Haleva]] (d. 2025) || Hahambashi, Chief Rabbi of Turkey (senior tier) || Turkish Sephardi chief rabbinate
|-
| Izak Alaluf || Rabbi of the Kemerburgaz community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| Isak Peres || Rabbi of the Yeniköy community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| [[Naftali Haleva]] || Etz Ahayim, Ortaköy; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate (son of Isak Haleva)
|-
| David Zvi || Rabbi of Beit Israel, Istanbul || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Avraham Gershon || Hesed Leavraam, Büyükada || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Mendel Porush || Rabbi for kashrut, Istanbul || Not established
|}
[[David Sevi]], chief rabbi since 2025, is described by JNS as an ARIS member, but he does not appear under that spelling on the ARIS list.<ref name="JNS2025" />
:''Editor's note: Only Chitrik is confirmed as Chabad. The others are listed with community roles, and no Chabad link was found for them. ARIS's Turkish membership is mainly the established Turkish rabbinate. Whether "David Zvi" on the ARIS list is the same person as David Sevi was not established.''

== Timeline ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Event
|-
| 2001 || [[Mendy Chitrik]] arrives in Istanbul at the request of the Turkish Jewish community (his account)
|-
| 2002 || [[Isak Haleva]] becomes Hahambaşı
|-
| 2003 || Chitrik becomes rabbi of the Ashkenazi community
|-
| 2009 || Chabad of Antalya ([[Menachem Litzman]]) holds Hanukkah events for Israeli tourists
|-
| 2019 || Chitrik founds the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
|-
| Nov 2022 || Chitrik and [[Levi Shemtov]] meet the presidential chief of staff, Hasan Doğan
|-
| Nov 2024 || Kogan murder suspects arrested in Istanbul and extradited to the UAE
|-
| 14 Jan 2025 || Death of Isak Haleva
|-
| Dec 2025 || [[David Sevi]], an ARIS member, installed as Hahambaşı
|}

== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch in West Asia]]
* [[Zionist connections in Turkey]]
* [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
* [[Chabad Lubavitch of Cyprus]]
* [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]]
* [[Chabad in Iran]]

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="NYJG2023">Meyer Harroch, [https://newyorkjewishguide.com/2023/01/12/getting-to-know-the-jewish-community-in-turkey-a-conversation-with-rabbi-mendy-chitrik "Getting to know the Jewish Community in Turkey: A Conversation with Rabbi Mendy Chitrik"], ''New York Jewish Guide'', 12 January 2023. Interview, Chitrik's own words; written on a press trip sponsored by the Turkish tourism agency.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2025">David I. Klein, [https://www.jta.org/2025/01/15/obituaries/isak-haleva-turkeys-chief-rabbi-and-face-of-jewish-minority-dies-at-84 "Isak Haleva, Turkey's chief rabbi and face of Jewish minority, dies at 84"], Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 15 January 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="JNS2025">JNS Staff, [https://www.jns.org/jewish-life/turkish-jews-install-david-sevi-as-new-chief-rabbi "Turkish Jews install David Sevi as new chief rabbi"], JNS, 5 December 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="Forward2021">David Ian Klein, [https://forward.com/news/466368/matzah-in-beirut-or-a-seder-in-samarkand-these-rabbis-are-making-it-happen/ "Matzah in Beirut or a Seder in Samarkand? These rabbis are making it happen."], ''The Forward'', 22 March 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="IsraelHayom2021">JNS and ILH Staff, [https://www.israelhayom.com/2021/10/29/rabbinical-alliance-bolsters-jewish-community-in-islamic-states/ "Rabbinical alliance bolsters Jewish community in Islamic states"], ''Israel Hayom'', 29 October 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="CHinfo2009">[https://crownheights.info/shlichus/23095/israelis-celebrate-chanukah-with-chabad-of-turkey/ "Israelis Celebrate Chanukah with Chabad of Turkey"], CrownHeights.info, 21 December 2009. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="COLAntalya">[https://col.org.il/news/50470 "השליח באנטליה ל'וואלה': 'אנחנו לא חוששים מהמתיחות'"] ("The emissary in Antalya to Walla: 'We are not afraid of the tension'"), COL (col.org.il), undated (c. 2009–10). Chabad-side; in Hebrew.</ref>
<ref name="COLlive2022">[https://collive.com/shluchim-well-received-in-mideast-capitals/ "Shluchim Well Received in Mideast Capitals"], COLlive, 11 November 2022. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="AA2016">Enes Kaplan, [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture-and-art/turkeys-erdogan-releases-message-honoring-hanukkah/713827 "Turkey's Erdogan releases message honoring Hanukkah"], Anadolu Agency, 25 December 2016. Turkish state news agency.</ref>
<ref name="TRT2024">Alican Tekingunduz, [https://www.trtworld.com/article/18236910 "Turkish intelligence nabs rabbi murderers, extradites to UAE"], TRT World, November 2024. Turkish state broadcaster.</ref>
<ref name="ARIS">Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States, [https://www.rabbisalliance.org/about/the-rabbis/ "ARIS Rabbis"], accessed 19 October 2026. Self-published; mainly Chabad-led.</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Turkey]]

Chabad Lubavitch of Turkey

2026-10-20T09:28:54Z

David: /* Relations with the established community and the chief rabbinate */

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey: Rabbi Mendy Chitrik's Istanbul mission since 2001, which works inside the established Turkish Jewish community and its chief rabbinate, a resort-based centre in Antalya, and the Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States'''}}

{{Infobox organization
| name = Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey
| type = Chabad-Lubavitch emissary operation
| founded = 2001 (arrival of Mendy Chitrik in Istanbul)
| founder = [[Mendy Chitrik]]
| headquarters = Istanbul
| key_people = [[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul; rabbi of the Ashkenazi community; chairman of ARIS); [[Menachem Litzman]] and Shira Litzman (Antalya)
| area_served = Turkey, mainly Istanbul and the Antalya resort area
| affiliations = Works within the Turkish Jewish community under the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Hahambaşı]]; [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
| remarks = Sidebar slot is titled "Chabad of Istanbul"; this country-level page covers it
}}

'''Chabad-Lubavitch in Turkey''' is led by Rabbi [[Mendy Chitrik]], who arrived in Istanbul in 2001 with his wife. In his words, they came "per the request of the Turkish Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> Unlike Chabad missions that set up beside an existing community, Chitrik serves inside the established, mainly Sephardi Turkish Jewish community. He has been rabbi of its small Ashkenazi community since 2003, and runs kosher supervision for the [[Chief Rabbinate of Turkey|Turkish chief rabbinate]]'s exports.<ref name="NYJG2023" /><ref name="ARIS" /> He describes Chabad in Turkey as "very much integrated into part of the local Jewish community".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] calls him "Chabad's emissary in Istanbul".<ref name="JTA2025" /> In 2019 Chitrik founded the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]] (ARIS), a mainly Chabad network of rabbis in Muslim-majority countries, and he chairs it from Istanbul.<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> A second Chabad centre in Antalya, run by Rabbi [[Menachem Litzman]], has served Israeli tourists.<ref name="CHinfo2009" />

== Emissaries and entities ==
* '''[[Mendy Chitrik]] (Istanbul).''' Chitrik says he came to Turkey in 2001, aged 24, "to help the Jewish community with education and other projects", and "eventually" became rabbi of the Ashkenazi community.<ref name="NYJG2023" /> The ''[[The Forward|Forward]]'' describes him as "an emissary of the Chabad movement" who "also serves as the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Turkey".<ref name="Forward2021" /> ''[[Israel Hayom]]'' calls him "chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic community of Istanbul".<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />
* '''[[Menachem Litzman]] (Antalya).''' In 2009 CrownHeights.info reported that "Chabad of Antalya, Turkey, headed by Shliach Rabbi Menachem and Shira Litzman, organized over 10 Chanukah parties in hotels all over Turkey for thousands of Israelis", and handed out menorahs at the airport.<ref name="CHinfo2009" /> In an undated item from around 2009–10, COL quoted Litzman telling Walla! that "we are not afraid" despite Israeli–Turkish tension.<ref name="COLAntalya" />
:''Editor's note: No Turkish registration of a Chabad body was found. The West Asia overview lists Chabad houses in Bodrum, Marmaris and Ankara, but no source for them was found, so they are left out here. The current status of the Antalya centre after 2010 was not confirmed.''

== Relations with the established community and the chief rabbinate ==
Turkey's Jewish community of about 15,000 is overwhelmingly Sephardi. It is led religiously by the Hahambaşı (chief rabbi) and is represented by a lay president.<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="NYJG2023" /> Chabad's place in it is that of a recognised part of the community, not a rival.
* [[Isak Haleva]], Hahambaşı from 2002 until his death on 14 January 2025, was listed by ARIS among its most senior rabbis, above Chitrik's executive board. On Haleva's death Chitrik, "who had known Haleva for over 20 years", told [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] that he "gained the love and appreciation of the entire community".<ref name="JTA2025" /><ref name="ARIS" />
* [[David Sevi]], elected unopposed in September 2025 and installed at Neve Shalom synagogue in December 2025, "is a member of the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]", according to JNS.<ref name="JNS2025" />
* Five other Istanbul rabbis are listed as ARIS members: three members of the [[Bet Din of Istanbul]], and the rabbis of Beit Israel and of Büyükada (see below).<ref name="ARIS" />
* Chitrik says he is "responsible for the kashrut of the Turkish rabbinate for all exports", acting as "a representative of the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and the Orthodox Union".<ref name="NYJG2023" /> (Chitrik's own account.)
:''Editor's note: No source was found reporting friction between Chabad and the Turkish chief rabbinate. The sources above are mostly Chitrik's own statements, Chabad-side reporting and obituaries. An independent account from the Turkish community (e.g. Şalom newspaper or the community's own statements) was not consulted.''

== Relations with the Turkish state and Israel ==
* COLlive reported in November 2022 on a regional visit to Bahrain, Israel, the UAE and Turkey by Rabbi [[Levi Shemtov]] of [[American Friends of Lubavitch]]. The emissaries taking part included Chitrik. It said the dignitaries they met included "His Excellency Hasan Doğan, Chief of Staff of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye), following a meeting which occurred earlier with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan".<ref name="COLlive2022" /> (Chabad-side. The wording does not make clear who attended the earlier meeting with [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]].)
* [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Erdoğan]] issued a Hanukkah message to Turkish Jews in 2016, through the Presidential Press Office. It called Jewish citizens an "inseparable part of our society".<ref name="AA2016" /> In January 2025 he called the community's lay leaders to offer condolences on Haleva's death.<ref name="JTA2025" />
* JTA notes that since October 2023 Turkey "has endorsed Hamas and cut off trade with Israel".<ref name="JTA2025" />
* In November 2024 Turkey's [[National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)|National Intelligence Organization]] and police arrested in Istanbul the three suspects in the murder of the UAE Chabad emissary [[Zvi Kogan]], and extradited them to the UAE, according to TRT World. See [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="TRT2024" />
* In 2021 Chitrik said that after a social media user made a false accusation against him, the authorities questioned the man and opened "an official complaint against him", although Chitrik had not filed one.<ref name="IsraelHayom2021" />

== Funding and donors ==
Chitrik said in 2023: "The Chabad operation is funded by donations coming from passersby and local donors". He said the Istanbul Chabad house hosts "some 70 guests every Shabbat".<ref name="NYJG2023" />
:''Editor's note: No donors are named in the sources, and no accounts were found.''

== Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States ==
ARIS was set up by Chitrik in 2019. The ''Forward'' reported in March 2021 that he "founded ARIS 18 months ago", and ''Israel Hayom'' said that "the majority" of its 45 rabbis "are associated with Chabad".<ref name="Forward2021" /><ref name="IsraelHayom2021" /> ARIS lists these rabbis for Turkey:<ref name="ARIS" />
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role as listed by ARIS !! Affiliation
|-
| [[Mendy Chitrik]] || Chairman; Rabbi of the Ashkenazi community of Istanbul || Chabad emissary
|-
| [[Isak Haleva]] (d. 2025) || Hahambashi, Chief Rabbi of Turkey (senior tier) || Turkish Sephardi chief rabbinate
|-
| Izak Alaluf || Rabbi of the Kemerburgaz community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| Isak Peres || Rabbi of the Yeniköy community; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate
|-
| [[Naftali Haleva]] || Etz Ahayim, Ortaköy; member of the Bet Din of Istanbul || Turkish community rabbinate (son of Isak Haleva)
|-
| David Zvi || Rabbi of Beit Israel, Istanbul || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Avraham Gershon || Hesed Leavraam, Büyükada || Turkish community rabbi
|-
| Mendel Porush || Rabbi for kashrut, Istanbul || Not established
|}
[[David Sevi]], chief rabbi since 2025, is described by JNS as an ARIS member, but he does not appear under that spelling on the ARIS list.<ref name="JNS2025" />
:''Editor's note: Only Chitrik is confirmed as Chabad. The others are listed with community roles, and no Chabad link was found for them. ARIS's Turkish membership is mainly the established Turkish rabbinate. Whether "David Zvi" on the ARIS list is the same person as David Sevi was not established.''

== Timeline ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Event
|-
| 2001 || [[Mendy Chitrik]] arrives in Istanbul at the request of the Turkish Jewish community (his account)
|-
| 2002 || [[Isak Haleva]] becomes Hahambaşı
|-
| 2003 || Chitrik becomes rabbi of the Ashkenazi community
|-
| 2009 || Chabad of Antalya ([[Menachem Litzman]]) holds Hanukkah events for Israeli tourists
|-
| 2019 || Chitrik founds the [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
|-
| Nov 2022 || Chitrik and [[Levi Shemtov]] meet the presidential chief of staff, Hasan Doğan
|-
| Nov 2024 || Kogan murder suspects arrested in Istanbul and extradited to the UAE
|-
| 14 Jan 2025 || Death of Isak Haleva
|-
| Dec 2025 || [[David Sevi]], an ARIS member, installed as Hahambaşı
|}

== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch in West Asia]]
* [[Zionist connections in Turkey]]
* [[Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States]]
* [[Chabad Lubavitch of Cyprus]]
* [[Chabad of United Arab Emirates]]
* [[Chabad in Iran]]

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="NYJG2023">Meyer Harroch, [https://newyorkjewishguide.com/2023/01/12/getting-to-know-the-jewish-community-in-turkey-a-conversation-with-rabbi-mendy-chitrik "Getting to know the Jewish Community in Turkey: A Conversation with Rabbi Mendy Chitrik"], ''New York Jewish Guide'', 12 January 2023. Interview, Chitrik's own words; written on a press trip sponsored by the Turkish tourism agency.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2025">David I. Klein, [https://www.jta.org/2025/01/15/obituaries/isak-haleva-turkeys-chief-rabbi-and-face-of-jewish-minority-dies-at-84 "Isak Haleva, Turkey's chief rabbi and face of Jewish minority, dies at 84"], Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 15 January 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="JNS2025">JNS Staff, [https://www.jns.org/jewish-life/turkish-jews-install-david-sevi-as-new-chief-rabbi "Turkish Jews install David Sevi as new chief rabbi"], JNS, 5 December 2025. Press.</ref>
<ref name="Forward2021">David Ian Klein, [https://forward.com/news/466368/matzah-in-beirut-or-a-seder-in-samarkand-these-rabbis-are-making-it-happen/ "Matzah in Beirut or a Seder in Samarkand? These rabbis are making it happen."], ''The Forward'', 22 March 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="IsraelHayom2021">JNS and ILH Staff, [https://www.israelhayom.com/2021/10/29/rabbinical-alliance-bolsters-jewish-community-in-islamic-states/ "Rabbinical alliance bolsters Jewish community in Islamic states"], ''Israel Hayom'', 29 October 2021. Press.</ref>
<ref name="CHinfo2009">[https://crownheights.info/shlichus/23095/israelis-celebrate-chanukah-with-chabad-of-turkey/ "Israelis Celebrate Chanukah with Chabad of Turkey"], CrownHeights.info, 21 December 2009. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="COLAntalya">[https://col.org.il/news/50470 "השליח באנטליה ל'וואלה': 'אנחנו לא חוששים מהמתיחות'"] ("The emissary in Antalya to Walla: 'We are not afraid of the tension'"), COL (col.org.il), undated (c. 2009–10). Chabad-side; in Hebrew.</ref>
<ref name="COLlive2022">[https://collive.com/shluchim-well-received-in-mideast-capitals/ "Shluchim Well Received in Mideast Capitals"], COLlive, 11 November 2022. Chabad-side.</ref>
<ref name="AA2016">Enes Kaplan, [https://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture-and-art/turkeys-erdogan-releases-message-honoring-hanukkah/713827 "Turkey's Erdogan releases message honoring Hanukkah"], Anadolu Agency, 25 December 2016. Turkish state news agency.</ref>
<ref name="TRT2024">Alican Tekingunduz, [https://www.trtworld.com/article/18236910 "Turkish intelligence nabs rabbi murderers, extradites to UAE"], TRT World, November 2024. Turkish state broadcaster.</ref>
<ref name="ARIS">Alliance of Rabbis in Islamic States, [https://www.rabbisalliance.org/about/the-rabbis/ "ARIS Rabbis"], accessed 19 October 2026. Self-published; mainly Chabad-led.</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Turkey]]

Bnos Yisroel School Manchester

2026-10-19T11:24:42Z

David: /* Trustees */

{{short description|Registered charity in England and Wales}}
{{Infobox organization
|name=Bnos Yisroel School Manchester
|type=Registered charity and company limited by guarantee
|founded=19 October 2009 (incorporated); 30 June 2011 (registered as a charity)
|location=Salford, England
|registration=Charity Commission for England and Wales; Companies House
|registration_id=Charity 1142654; Company 07049059
|status=Registered
}}
Bnos Yisroel School Manchester
URN: 105996

Address: Leicester Road, Salford, Lancashire, M7 4DA
==Resources==

*https://reports.ofsted.gov.uk/provider/27/105996
*https://www.get-information-schools.service.gov.uk/Establishments/Establishment/Details/105996
==People==
===Trustees===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Date of appointment !! Other trusteeships
|-
| [[Morris Brunner]] || Trustee || 20 July 2024 || [[The Roston Charitable Trust]] (charity number: 1119994) | [[J Shine Charities Limited]] (charity number: 251283) | [[The Machzikei Hadass Communities]] (charity number: 235459) | [[Academy for Talmudical Research (kolel Harabanim)]] (charity number: 526665) | [[Machzikei Hadass Community Services Ltd]] (charity number: 1177884) | [[Heichal Hatorah]] (charity number: 1095687) | [[Timatside Ltd]] (charity number: 1062745)
|-
| [[Rephael Melul]] || Trustee || 20 July 2024 || [[Rabbi Meir and Rafael Pinto Talmudical Centre]] (charity number: 511045)
|}
Source: Charity Commission register.<ref name="CCTrustees">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5015955/trustees BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER trustees] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

===Historic trustees===
Trustees as listed in archived snapshots of the Charity Commission register (first and last snapshot in which each name appears; not a record of actual appointment or resignation dates).
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! First seen !! Last seen !! Snapshots listing name
|-
| [[David Solomon Adler]] || 26 July 2017 || 2 January 2019 || 3 <ref name="ARC1142654_1">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20170726183647/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1142654&subid=0 Bnos Yisroel School Manchester – register entry (26 July 2017)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 26 July 2017, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="ARC1142654_2">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20190102193603/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1142654&subid=0 Bnos Yisroel School Manchester – register entry (2 January 2019)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 2 January 2019, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
|-
| [[Mr Abittan (trustee, Bnos Yisroel School Manchester)|Mr Abittan]] || 26 July 2017 || 2 January 2019 || 3 <ref name="ARC1142654_1" /><ref name="ARC1142654_2" />
|}
===Directors===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Position !! Date of birth !! Age !! Appointed on !! Resigned on !! Nationality !! Country of residence !! Occupation
|-
| [[Morris Brunner]] || Role Active || Director || March 1949 || 77 || 22 August 2022 || || British || England Identity verification due 2 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Refael Melul]] || Role Active || Director || April 1990 || 36 || 14 November 2022 || || British || England Identity verification due 2 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Yomtov Eliezer Jacobs]] || Role Resigned || Director || October 1970 || 55 or 56 || 19 October 2009 || 19 October 2009 || British || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Eliyohu Menachem Steinhaus]] || Role Resigned || Director || August 1970 || 56 || 19 October 2009 || 22 August 2022 || British || United Kingdom || Not disclosed
|}
Source: Companies House officers register.<ref name="CHOfficers">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059/officers BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

===Persons with significant control===
*PSC statement: The company knows or has reasonable cause to believe that there is no registrable person or registrable relevant legal entity in relation to the company (notified 19 October 2016)
Source: Companies House PSC register.<ref name="CHPSC">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059/persons-with-significant-control BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER persons with significant control] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

==Finances==
{| class="wikitable"
! Financial year end !! Total income !! Total expenditure !! Income from donations and legacies !! Expenditure on charitable activities !! Grants to institutions !! Total funds (assets less liabilities) !! Cash !! Employees !! Volunteers !! Accounts received
|-
| August 2012 || £1,305,985 || £1,252,991 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2013 || £1,292,978 || £1,272,258 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2014 || £1,456,831 || £1,451,333 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2015 || £1,629,759 || £1,619,989 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2016 || £1,736,866 || £1,730,051 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2017 || £1,990,308 || £1,901,770 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_2" />
|-
| 31 August 2021 || £2,351,492 || £2,395,601 || £417,115 || £2,366,212 || £0 || £266,627 || £105,377 || 118 || 0 || 23 June 2022 (due 30 June 2022)
|-
| 31 August 2022 || £2,597,199 || £2,488,642 || £522,490 || £2,464,309 || £0 || £375,184 || £136,706 || 228 || 0 || 30 June 2023 (due 30 June 2023)
|-
| 31 August 2023 || £2,866,505 || £2,551,659 || £675,388 || £2,479,708 || £0 || £690,030 || £40,496 || 225 || 0 || 30 June 2024 (due 30 June 2024)
|-
| 31 August 2024 || £2,901,809 || £2,854,812 || £447,390 || £2,819,212 || £0 || £737,027 || £181,532 || 233 || 0 || 27 May 2025 (due 30 June 2025)
|-
| 31 August 2025 || £3,634,428 || £3,126,490 || £645,287 || £3,072,349 || £0 || £1,244,965 || £394,673 || 245 || 0 || 21 May 2026 (due 30 June 2026)
|}
Source: Charity Commission financial history and register data.<ref name="CCFin">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5015955/financial-history BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER financial history] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026; figures from the Commission's public register data extract dated 13 October 2026.</ref> Trustee payments: "No trustees receive any remuneration, payments or benefits from the charity."<ref name="CCOverview">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5015955 BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER overview] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

*Companies House: last accounts made up to 31 August 2025 (Full accounts, filed 20 May 2026); next accounts made up to 26 August 2026, due by 26 May 2027.<ref name="CHCompany">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059 BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER overview] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref><ref name="CHAcc">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059/filing-history BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER filing history] – Full accounts made up to 31 August 2025, filed 20 May 2026, ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>
*Companies House: last confirmation statement dated 19 October 2025; next due by 2 November 2026.<ref name="CHCompany" />
*Archived accounts: [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200108000153/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20140831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2014]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200108000153/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20150831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2015]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107233927/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20160831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2016]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107232759/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20170831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2017]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107233926/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20180831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2018]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200703172723/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20190831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2019].<ref name="ARC1142654_3">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200108000153/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20140831_E_C.PDF Bnos Yisroel School Manchester – archived accounts], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 8 January 2020, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*'''Land Registry (company-owned property):''' HM Land Registry's company ownership data (October 2026) lists 1 title(s) registered to the organisation or a linked company: Bnos Yisroel School, Leicester Road, Salford (M7 4DA) (title MAN227127, leasehold; registered proprietor BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER (07049059); proprietor registered 23-05-2014).<ref name="LRCCOD">HM Land Registry, [https://use-land-property-data.service.gov.uk/datasets/ccod UK companies that own property in England and Wales] dataset, October 2026, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

==Controversies and conflicts==
*'''Filing compliance:''' All 5 annual returns and accounts on the Charity Commission record were received by their due dates, and the register states "Charity reporting is up to date (on time)".<ref name="CCFin" /><ref name="CCOverview" />
*'''Overlapping trusteeships:''' [[Morris Brunner]] is also a trustee of [[The Roston Charitable Trust]] (1119994), [[J Shine Charities Limited]] (251283), [[The Machzikei Hadass Communities]] (235459), [[Academy For Talmudical Research (kolel Harabanim)]] (526665), [[Machzikei Hadass Community Services Ltd]] (1177884), [[Heichal Hatorah]] (1095687), [[Timatside Ltd]] (1062745). [[Rephael Melul]] is also a trustee of [[Rabbi Meir and Rafael Pinto Talmudical Centre]] (511045).<ref name="CCTrustees" />
*'''Register inconsistencies:''' [[Rephael Melul]] is listed as trustee by the Charity Commission<ref name="CCTrustees" /> but not as a current director at Companies House.<ref name="CHOfficers" /> [[Refael Melul]] is a current director at Companies House<ref name="CHOfficers" /> but not listed as trustee by the Charity Commission.<ref name="CCTrustees" />

==Notes==
<references/>
[[Category:Charities]]
[[Category:Jewish charities in the United Kingdom]]

Bnos Yisroel School Manchester

2026-10-19T11:24:22Z

David:

{{short description|Registered charity in England and Wales}}
{{Infobox organization
|name=Bnos Yisroel School Manchester
|type=Registered charity and company limited by guarantee
|founded=19 October 2009 (incorporated); 30 June 2011 (registered as a charity)
|location=Salford, England
|registration=Charity Commission for England and Wales; Companies House
|registration_id=Charity 1142654; Company 07049059
|status=Registered
}}
Bnos Yisroel School Manchester
URN: 105996

Address: Leicester Road, Salford, Lancashire, M7 4DA
==Resources==

*https://reports.ofsted.gov.uk/provider/27/105996
*https://www.get-information-schools.service.gov.uk/Establishments/Establishment/Details/105996
==People==
===Trustees===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Date of appointment !! Other trusteeships
|-
| [[Morris Brunner]] || Trustee || 20 July 2024 || [[The Roston Charitable Trust]] (charity number: 1119994) | [[J Shine Charities Limited]] (charity number: 251283) | [[The Machzikei Hadass Communities]] (charity number: 235459) | [[Academy For Talmudical Research (kolel Harabanim)]] (charity number: 526665) | [[Machzikei Hadass Community Services Ltd]] (charity number: 1177884) | [[Heichal Hatorah]] (charity number: 1095687) | [[Timatside Ltd]] (charity number: 1062745)
|-
| [[Rephael Melul]] || Trustee || 20 July 2024 || [[Rabbi Meir And Rafael Pinto Talmudical Centre]] (charity number: 511045)
|}
Source: Charity Commission register.<ref name="CCTrustees">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5015955/trustees BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER trustees] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

===Historic trustees===
Trustees as listed in archived snapshots of the Charity Commission register (first and last snapshot in which each name appears; not a record of actual appointment or resignation dates).
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! First seen !! Last seen !! Snapshots listing name
|-
| [[David Solomon Adler]] || 26 July 2017 || 2 January 2019 || 3 <ref name="ARC1142654_1">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20170726183647/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1142654&subid=0 Bnos Yisroel School Manchester – register entry (26 July 2017)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 26 July 2017, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="ARC1142654_2">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20190102193603/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1142654&subid=0 Bnos Yisroel School Manchester – register entry (2 January 2019)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 2 January 2019, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
|-
| [[Mr Abittan (trustee, Bnos Yisroel School Manchester)|Mr Abittan]] || 26 July 2017 || 2 January 2019 || 3 <ref name="ARC1142654_1" /><ref name="ARC1142654_2" />
|}
===Directors===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Position !! Date of birth !! Age !! Appointed on !! Resigned on !! Nationality !! Country of residence !! Occupation
|-
| [[Morris Brunner]] || Role Active || Director || March 1949 || 77 || 22 August 2022 || || British || England Identity verification due 2 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Refael Melul]] || Role Active || Director || April 1990 || 36 || 14 November 2022 || || British || England Identity verification due 2 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Yomtov Eliezer Jacobs]] || Role Resigned || Director || October 1970 || 55 or 56 || 19 October 2009 || 19 October 2009 || British || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Eliyohu Menachem Steinhaus]] || Role Resigned || Director || August 1970 || 56 || 19 October 2009 || 22 August 2022 || British || United Kingdom || Not disclosed
|}
Source: Companies House officers register.<ref name="CHOfficers">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059/officers BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

===Persons with significant control===
*PSC statement: The company knows or has reasonable cause to believe that there is no registrable person or registrable relevant legal entity in relation to the company (notified 19 October 2016)
Source: Companies House PSC register.<ref name="CHPSC">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059/persons-with-significant-control BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER persons with significant control] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

==Finances==
{| class="wikitable"
! Financial year end !! Total income !! Total expenditure !! Income from donations and legacies !! Expenditure on charitable activities !! Grants to institutions !! Total funds (assets less liabilities) !! Cash !! Employees !! Volunteers !! Accounts received
|-
| August 2012 || £1,305,985 || £1,252,991 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2013 || £1,292,978 || £1,272,258 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2014 || £1,456,831 || £1,451,333 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2015 || £1,629,759 || £1,619,989 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2016 || £1,736,866 || £1,730,051 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_1" />
|-
| August 2017 || £1,990,308 || £1,901,770 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1142654_2" />
|-
| 31 August 2021 || £2,351,492 || £2,395,601 || £417,115 || £2,366,212 || £0 || £266,627 || £105,377 || 118 || 0 || 23 June 2022 (due 30 June 2022)
|-
| 31 August 2022 || £2,597,199 || £2,488,642 || £522,490 || £2,464,309 || £0 || £375,184 || £136,706 || 228 || 0 || 30 June 2023 (due 30 June 2023)
|-
| 31 August 2023 || £2,866,505 || £2,551,659 || £675,388 || £2,479,708 || £0 || £690,030 || £40,496 || 225 || 0 || 30 June 2024 (due 30 June 2024)
|-
| 31 August 2024 || £2,901,809 || £2,854,812 || £447,390 || £2,819,212 || £0 || £737,027 || £181,532 || 233 || 0 || 27 May 2025 (due 30 June 2025)
|-
| 31 August 2025 || £3,634,428 || £3,126,490 || £645,287 || £3,072,349 || £0 || £1,244,965 || £394,673 || 245 || 0 || 21 May 2026 (due 30 June 2026)
|}
Source: Charity Commission financial history and register data.<ref name="CCFin">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5015955/financial-history BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER financial history] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026; figures from the Commission's public register data extract dated 13 October 2026.</ref> Trustee payments: "No trustees receive any remuneration, payments or benefits from the charity."<ref name="CCOverview">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5015955 BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER overview] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

*Companies House: last accounts made up to 31 August 2025 (Full accounts, filed 20 May 2026); next accounts made up to 26 August 2026, due by 26 May 2027.<ref name="CHCompany">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059 BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER overview] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref><ref name="CHAcc">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07049059/filing-history BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER filing history] – Full accounts made up to 31 August 2025, filed 20 May 2026, ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>
*Companies House: last confirmation statement dated 19 October 2025; next due by 2 November 2026.<ref name="CHCompany" />
*Archived accounts: [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200108000153/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20140831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2014]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200108000153/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20150831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2015]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107233927/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20160831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2016]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107232759/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20170831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2017]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107233926/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20180831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2018]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200703172723/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20190831_E_C.PDF year ending 31 August 2019].<ref name="ARC1142654_3">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200108000153/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends54/0001142654_AC_20140831_E_C.PDF Bnos Yisroel School Manchester – archived accounts], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 8 January 2020, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*'''Land Registry (company-owned property):''' HM Land Registry's company ownership data (October 2026) lists 1 title(s) registered to the organisation or a linked company: Bnos Yisroel School, Leicester Road, Salford (M7 4DA) (title MAN227127, leasehold; registered proprietor BNOS YISROEL SCHOOL MANCHESTER (07049059); proprietor registered 23-05-2014).<ref name="LRCCOD">HM Land Registry, [https://use-land-property-data.service.gov.uk/datasets/ccod UK companies that own property in England and Wales] dataset, October 2026, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

==Controversies and conflicts==
*'''Filing compliance:''' All 5 annual returns and accounts on the Charity Commission record were received by their due dates, and the register states "Charity reporting is up to date (on time)".<ref name="CCFin" /><ref name="CCOverview" />
*'''Overlapping trusteeships:''' [[Morris Brunner]] is also a trustee of [[The Roston Charitable Trust]] (1119994), [[J Shine Charities Limited]] (251283), [[The Machzikei Hadass Communities]] (235459), [[Academy For Talmudical Research (kolel Harabanim)]] (526665), [[Machzikei Hadass Community Services Ltd]] (1177884), [[Heichal Hatorah]] (1095687), [[Timatside Ltd]] (1062745). [[Rephael Melul]] is also a trustee of [[Rabbi Meir and Rafael Pinto Talmudical Centre]] (511045).<ref name="CCTrustees" />
*'''Register inconsistencies:''' [[Rephael Melul]] is listed as trustee by the Charity Commission<ref name="CCTrustees" /> but not as a current director at Companies House.<ref name="CHOfficers" /> [[Refael Melul]] is a current director at Companies House<ref name="CHOfficers" /> but not listed as trustee by the Charity Commission.<ref name="CCTrustees" />

==Notes==
<references/>
[[Category:Charities]]
[[Category:Jewish charities in the United Kingdom]]

Berel Lazar and the Kremlin

2026-10-17T16:06:14Z

David:

{{short description|The relationship between Chabad rabbi Berel Lazar, the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia and the Kremlin under Vladimir Putin}}

{{Infobox
| bodystyle = float:right; clear:right; width:22em; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #aaa;
| title = Berel Lazar and the Kremlin
| image = 
| label1 = Key figure | data1 = Berel (Pinchas Berel) Lazar (b. 1964, Milan)
| label2 = Organisation | data2 = [[Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia]] (FEOR), reconstituted November 1999
| label3 = Title | data3 = "Chief Rabbi of Russia" (FEOR, from June 2000; contested)
| label4 = Rival | data4 = [[Adolf Shayevich]] (KEROOR / [[Russian Jewish Congress]])
| label5 = Main funders | data5 = [[Lev Leviev]]; [[Roman Abramovich]] (reported)
| label6 = State honours | data6 = Order of Friendship (2004); Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 4th class (2014)
}}
{{Chabad sidebar}}
'''Berel Lazar and the Kremlin''' describes the close relationship between the Chabad-Lubavitch rabbi '''[[Berel Lazar]]''', the [[Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia]] (FEOR) and the Russian state under [[Vladimir Putin]]. In June 2000 Lazar was elected "Chief Rabbi of Russia" by a FEOR congress. The election came hours before the arrest of the media magnate [[Vladimir Gusinsky]], president of the rival [[Russian Jewish Congress]] (RJC). Lazar's FEOR then displaced the RJC and the existing chief rabbi, [[Adolf Shayevich]], as the Kremlin's main Jewish partner.<ref name="JWeekly2000">[https://jweekly.com/2000/06/16/rabbi-s-election-mogul-s-arrest-raise-tensions-in-russia/ "Rabbi's election, mogul's arrest raise tensions in Russia"], ''J. The Jewish News of Northern California'' (JTA), 16 June 2000.</ref><ref name="TOI2022b">[https://www.timesofisrael.com/i-could-not-remain-silent-moscows-chief-rabbi-says-he-left-over-war-in-ukraine/ "'I could not remain silent': Moscow's chief rabbi says he left over war in Ukraine"], ''Times of Israel'', 2022.</ref> The ''Times of Israel'' notes that he is sometimes called "Putin's rabbi".<ref name="TOI2022a">[https://www.timesofisrael.com/putins-rabbi-calls-for-end-to-war-in-ukraine-offers-to-mediate/ "'Putin's rabbi' calls for end to war in Ukraine, offers to mediate"], ''Times of Israel'', 2022.</ref> Critics see the relationship as state co-optation of Russian Jewish life. Lazar and Chabad present it as protection for Jews and freedom of worship.

== Background ==
FEOR's official biography (a primary source) says Lazar was born on 19 May 1964 in Milan into the family of the rabbi of the Jewish community there. He studied at Tomchei Tmimim in New York and was ordained in 1988. He first visited Russia in 1988 and came to Moscow in 1989 with the Rebbe's blessing, becoming rabbi of the Marina Roshcha synagogue in 1990.<ref name="Ravvinat">[https://ravvinat.ru/ru/about_us/chief_rabbi/ "Главный раввин России" (Chief Rabbi of Russia)], Office of the Chief Rabbi of Russia, accessed 16 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source (in Russian).</ref> In a Chabad-published interview Lazar recalled that "it was in 1990 that the Jewish Community in Marina Roscha invited me to assume the office of a rabbi. I came to the Rebbe: he was so happy for me, insisting that I had to accept this invitation".<ref name="Lubavitch">[https://www.lubavitch.com/anti-semitism-to-remain-marginal-in-russia/ "Anti Semitism To Remain Marginal In Russia"], Lubavitch.com (Interfax-Religion interview). Chabad-side primary source.</ref> A Chabad-side history counts the Lazars among the Rebbe's "first permanent shluchim sent to the Soviet Union". It dates Lev Leviev's "active investment in Chabad's expansion in the former Soviet Union", through the Ohr Avner Foundation, to around 1993.<ref name="eJP">[https://ejewishphilanthropy.com/25-years-after-fall-of-soviet-union-the-untold-story-of-its-jewish-pioneers/ "25 Years After Fall of Soviet Union, the Untold Story of its Jewish Pioneers"], ''eJewishPhilanthropy'', December 2016.</ref>

== FEOR and the 2000 "chief rabbi" election ==
FEOR was reconstituted as an umbrella body in November 1999. JTA reported that it "immediately received clear-cut signs of support from the government, including a meeting between its leaders and Putin, who was then acting president".<ref name="JWeekly2000" /> In May 2000 Shayevich, chief rabbi since the Soviet era and backed by Gusinsky's RJC, was not invited to Putin's inauguration; the ''Daily Telegraph'' reported that "his place was taken by representatives of Habad". Shayevich said Chabad leaders had urged him to stand down in Lazar's favour: "They offered me bribes, saying they had excellent ties with the Kremlin."<ref name="Telegraph2000">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/1343742/Gusinsky-arrest-raises-fears-for-Russias-Jews.html "Gusinsky arrest raises fears for Russia's Jews"], ''Daily Telegraph'', June 2000.</ref> He later called his charge of Kremlin pressure "a misunderstanding", but maintained that he had been pressed to resign. Lazar "strongly denied any involvement of his organization in pressuring Shayevich".<ref name="JWeekly2000b">[https://jweekly.com/2000/06/09/red-flags-go-up-then-come-down-in-russian-rabbi-flap/ "Red flags go up, then come down, in Russian rabbi flap"], ''J.'' (JTA), 9 June 2000.</ref>

On 13 June 2000 a FEOR congress elected Lazar, then 36, chief rabbi of Russia. The ''Moscow Times'' reported that 25 rabbis voted, and that FEOR spokesman Borukh Gorin declared: "For the first time in history, a chief rabbi of Russia is elected." Lazar said: "It is not an honor, it is a responsibility."<ref name="MT2000">[https://www.themoscowtimes.com/archive/jewish-split-widens-with-2-chief-rabbis "Jewish Split Widens With 2 Chief Rabbis"], ''Moscow Times'', June 2000.</ref> Gusinsky was arrested hours later. Shayevich called the two events "obviously part of one grand campaign". The paper added that FEOR "has been seen as an alternative to Gusinsky's congress and has appeared to have the support of Boris Berezovsky".<ref name="MT2000" /> Lazar and FEOR's lay head Mikhail Gluz denied any link to Berezovsky or the Kremlin administration.<ref name="JWeekly2000" /> Lazar publicly called for Gusinsky's release.<ref name="JJ2000">[https://jewishjournal.com/news/worldwide/2988/ "Bloodless Coup"], ''Jewish Journal'' (JTA), June 2000.</ref> Moscow's chief rabbi [[Pinchas Goldschmidt]] said his community would not recognise the title.<ref name="MT2000" /> The Moscow Jewish Community's director Pavel Feldblum said that, elected only by Lubavitch rabbis, Lazar "can only be the chief rabbi of Lubavitch in Russia".<ref name="JWeekly2000" />

The outcome was lasting. In 2007 JTA reported that KEROOR, Shayevich's organisation, had "lost the battlefield to its more affluent and politically connected rival", which was "mainly funded by Leviev and helped by federal authorities". One KEROOR official likened the comparison to "a gas station with British Petroleum".<ref name="JTA2007">[https://www.jta.org/2007/02/14/global/taking-a-back-seat-to-chabad-in-russia "Taking a back seat to Chabad in Russia"], ''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', 14 February 2007.</ref> In 2022 the ''Times of Israel'' wrote that FEOR "gained ascendency over all other Jewish organizations in Russia in the early 2000s, helped by the land and funding it received from the Russian government".<ref name="TOI2022b" />

=== Funders: Leviev and Abramovich ===
A 2017 ''Politico Magazine'' investigation went further. It alleged that "starting in 1999, Putin enlisted two of his closest confidants, the oligarchs Lev Leviev and Roman Abramovich ... to create the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia under the leadership of Chabad rabbi Berel Lazar". It said the purpose was "to undermine the existing umbrella for Russia's Jewish civil society, the Russian Jewish Congress".<ref name="Politico2017">[https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/04/the-happy-go-lucky-jewish-group-that-connects-trump-and-putin-215007 "The Happy-Go-Lucky Jewish Group That Connects Trump and Putin"], ''Politico Magazine'', April 2017. Critical investigative account.</ref>
:''Editor's note: Politico's claim that Putin personally "enlisted" Leviev and Abramovich to set up FEOR is its own characterisation and is not confirmed by the other sources cited. Leviev's funding is independently reported (JTA 2007). Abramovich's role here rests on Politico alone.''

== Relationship with Putin ==
Lazar was given Russian citizenship in 2000.<ref name="MT2000" /> FEOR's biography says that in 2001 he joined the presidential Council for Interaction with Religious Associations.<ref name="Ravvinat" /> A presidential decree of 31 March 2004 awarded him the Order of Friendship "for merits in the development of spiritual culture and strengthening friendship between peoples" (''за заслуги в развитии духовной культуры и укреплении дружбы между народами'').<ref name="Ukaz2004">[http://kremlin.ru/acts/bank/20736 Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 456, 31 March 2004], Kremlin.ru. Primary source.</ref> In April 2014 he received the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 4th class.<ref name="Ravvinat" /> Lazar recalled that Putin personally attended the opening of the Moscow Jewish Community Centre in September 2000, which he called "convincing proof that the authorities would never let anti-Semitism occur at the official level".<ref name="Lubavitch" />

At a meeting on 14 April 2014, according to the Kremlin transcript, Putin praised "the marvellous museum that you planned and created – the Jewish Museum and Tolerance Centre". Lazar told him that "it is thanks to you that we feel at ease and at home in Russia today, and that we can enjoy the highest degree of freedom of worship".<ref name="Kremlin2014">[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/20775 "Meeting with Chief Rabbi of Russia Berl Lazar and President of the Federation of Jewish Communities Alexander Boroda"], Kremlin.ru, 14 April 2014. Primary source.</ref> The ''Times of Israel'' reports that Lazar "officiates regularly at Kremlin-sponsored events" and "gave Putin a tour of the Western Wall in Jerusalem in 2012".<ref name="TOI2022a" />

== Crimea, 2014 ==
At the same April 2014 meeting, held a month after Russia annexed Crimea, Lazar told Putin that FEOR was "working actively in Crimea" and that "Simferopol, Sevastopol and Yalta will all hold big celebration events" for Passover.<ref name="Kremlin2014" /> According to the ''Times of Israel'', "in 2014, when Russia effectively annexed the Crimean peninsula, Lazar denounced fellow-Chabad Ukrainian rabbis who opposed the move and told them to remain quiet about the 'activity of politicians'".<ref name="TOI2022a" /> The Israeli Russian-language site NEWSru.co.il reported that he was responding to a 5 March 2014 letter to Putin from Ukraine's Jewish umbrella body VAAD. The letter had warned: "Your policy of inciting separatist tendencies and harsh pressure on Ukraine threatens both us and the entire Ukrainian people."<ref name="NEWSru2014">[https://www.newsru.co.il/world/1may2014/lazar409.html "Путин наградил главного раввина России Берла Лазара орденом в форме креста"], NEWSru.co.il, 1 May 2014 (in Russian; translation by Powerbase editor).</ref>

== Ukraine, 2022 ==
After Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Lazar took a different line. He wrote: "God expects every believer to do everything in their power to save human lives. Personally, I am ready for any mediation, ready to do anything I can and beyond to silence the guns and to stop the bombs." The ''Times of Israel'' called this "a major break from Lazar's previous stances".<ref name="TOI2022a" /> His statements did not name Russia as the aggressor. A September 2022 statement by Russia's Chabad rabbis called to "end the suffering" without mentioning Ukraine. JTA described Lazar and his deputy as "engaging in a delicate balancing act aimed at maintaining safety and access to Jewish life for the country's Jews".<ref name="JTA2022">[https://www.jta.org/2022/09/08/global/in-rare-and-delicate-statement-russias-chabad-rabbis-call-to-end-the-suffering "In rare and delicate statement, Russia's Chabad rabbis call to 'end the suffering'"], ''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', 8 September 2022.</ref> Meanwhile the Kyiv-based Chabad rabbi [[Moshe Reuven Azman]] "explicitly called on Russian Jews to act to end the war".<ref name="TOI2022a" />

=== Comparison with Pinchas Goldschmidt ===
Goldschmidt, Moscow's chief rabbi since 1993 and not affiliated with Chabad, left Russia in March 2022. His daughter-in-law said he had been "put under pressure by authorities to support the 'special operation' in Ukraine - and refused".<ref name="Reuters2022">[https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/moscows-chief-rabbi-leaves-russia-amid-pressure-back-war-ukraine-2022-06-08/ "Moscow's chief rabbi leaves Russia amid pressure to back war in Ukraine"], Reuters, 8 June 2022.</ref> Goldschmidt later stated: "As the terrible war against Ukraine unfolded over the last few months, I could not remain silent, viewing so much human suffering." He added that "the Jewish community of Moscow would be endangered by me remaining in my position".<ref name="TOI2022b" /> RFE/RL noted that Lazar "remains in Russia despite publicly opposing the conflict in Ukraine. It was not known whether state officials have asked him to publicly support the war."<ref name="RFERL2022">[https://www.rferl.org/a/moscow-rabbi-goldschmidt-leaves-russia-ukraine/31889244.html "Chief Rabbi Of Moscow Leaves Russia After Refusing To Publicly Support Ukraine War"], RFE/RL, 8 June 2022.</ref> JTA reported that some read the Chabad rabbis' September statement as "a veiled critique" of Goldschmidt. In it Lazar stressed that "a rabbi should always be with" his Jews.<ref name="JTA2022" />

== Messianism ==
The historian [[David Berger]], a critic of Chabad messianism, cites Lazar as "a clear illustration of the ongoing effort to mislead outsiders". Lazar had told a friend of Berger's that he abandoned belief in the Rebbe's messiahship in 1994, but Berger holds "a photocopy of a 1998 letter in Rabbi Lazar's own hand in which he refers to the Rebbe as ''melekh hamashiah''". Berger also notes that Lazar's secretary called his signature on a messianist halakhic ruling a forgery, but that "there is no record of Rabbi Lazar's objecting to its use".<ref name="Berger">David Berger, ''The Rebbe, the Messiah, and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference'' (London and Portland, Oregon: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2008 paperback edn), Introduction to the Paperback Edition, pp. xxxiv–xxxv. Critical source.</ref> See [[Chabad messianism]].

== Assessment ==
Critics, including the RJC camp in 2000 and later ''Politico'', see FEOR's rise as a Kremlin project to replace an independent, Gusinsky-funded Jewish leadership with a loyal one. The ''Daily Telegraph'' wrote in 2000 that Putin had backed Lazar, "whom he hopes will be more compliant".<ref name="Telegraph2000" /> Chabad sources stress state protection, freedom of worship and the growth of Jewish institutions.<ref name="Lubavitch" /><ref name="Kremlin2014" />
The historian Galina Zelenina of the Russian State University for the Humanities treats FEOR as "a nation-building project". In her account, from the early 2000s it became "a self-proclaimed speaker for Russian Jewry". It moved away from "the traditional lachrymose concept of the Jewish nation" towards "Jewish and Russian Jewish success, achievement, and heroism", in parallel with Russia's "rising from its knees".<ref name="Zelenina2018">Galina Zelenina, "‘Our Community is the Coolest in the World’: Chabad and Jewish Nation-Building in Contemporary Russia", ''Contemporary Jewry'' (2018), [https://doi.org/10.1007/s12397-018-9250-0 doi:10.1007/s12397-018-9250-0]. Scholarly source; cited from the article text, without journal page numbers.</ref> She calls FEOR's "effective and continuous alliance with the Kremlin" the "cornerstone" of its dominance. In her view this alliance follows a traditional Lubavitch path and also reflects "the traditional Russian idea (inherited from Byzantium) of a ‘symphony’ between state and church and the dependence of the latter on the former". She adds: "We do not know precisely how this alliance works, but we see how carefully and deliberately it is presented." She quotes Lazar: "Naturally, we support this rule as far as we can" (2014). She describes the annual "Hanukkah in Kremlin" ceremony in the State Kremlin Palace, where FEOR presents its "Man of the Year" awards. Zelenina also analyses the "elaborate apologia" for the alliance developed by American and Israeli Chabad writers. Its themes are that the alliance is "above politics", that it is "not a power grab", and that Putin's favour is "a divine miracle".<ref name="Zelenina2018" />
:''Editor's note: Zelenina (2018) is the only scholarly study of FEOR cited so far. Other scholarship on post-Soviet Jewish communal politics, including the FEOR–RJC rivalry, has not yet been consulted. Zelenina documents the Kremlin Hanukkah ceremony. Claims about state land grants to FEOR still rest on the ''Times of Israel'' summary. For the Schneerson Library transfer to FEOR's Jewish Museum in 2013, and Lazar's statement that "the president didn't ask us, he just told us", see [[Schneerson library case]].''

== See also ==
* [[Berel Lazar]]
* [[Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia]]
* [[Chabad Lubavitch of Russia]]
* [[Chabad and Ukraine]]
* [[Schneerson library case]]
* [[Chabad messianism]]

==Notes==
<references>
</references>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Lazar, Berel]]
[[Category:Russia|Lazar, Berel]]
[[Category:Vladimir Putin|Lazar, Berel]]

Category:Disambiguation pages

2026-10-17T12:21:39Z

David: Created page with "Pages that list several Powerbase articles sharing the same name, so readers can pick the one they want. Added automatically by Template:Disambiguation. __HIDDENCAT__"

Pages that list several Powerbase articles sharing the same name, so readers can pick the one they want. Added automatically by [[Template:Disambiguation]].

__HIDDENCAT__

Template:Disambiguation

2026-10-17T12:21:08Z

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{| class="metadata plainlinks" style="width:100%; margin:1em 0; border:1px solid #aaa; background:#f9f9f9; padding:0.3em;"
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|}<includeonly>[[Category:Disambiguation pages]]</includeonly><noinclude>
== Usage ==
Place <code><nowiki>{{Disambiguation}}</nowiki></code> at the bottom of a page that lists several people or organisations with the same name. It adds the notice and puts the page in [[:Category:Disambiguation pages]], so no separate category tag is needed.

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'''John Smith''' may refer to:
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</noinclude>

UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers

2026-10-17T09:51:11Z

David: /* Officers, October 2026 */

{{short description|UK charity sending funds to the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers
| type = Company limited by guarantee and registered charity
| logo = [[File:UK AWIS logo - Screen Shot 2014-09-21 at 22.42.26.png|300px]]
| founded = 20 October 2000
| founder = [[Alice Krieger]], at the instigation of Brig. Gen. [[Itzchaki Chen]]
| dissolved =
| registration_id = Company 04094203; charity 1084272
| status = Active. Official Warning, 9 June 2025
| headquarters = 1st Floor, Sackville House, 143-149 Fenchurch Street, London EC3M 6BL
| location = London, United Kingdom
| area_served = United Kingdom fundraising for the Israeli parent
| services = Grants for leisure, education and welfare of serving and discharged Israeli soldiers
| registration = England and Wales
| key_people = [[Miguel Gerardo Abadi]], [[Richard Justin Kemp]], [[Benny Shachor]], [[Joshua Eric Swidler]]
| website = [https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.ukawis.co.uk/ ukawis.co.uk] (offline)
| remarks = Parent: [[Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers]] (LIBI). Trading arm [[UK AWIS Trading Limited]] dissolved. Former offices: 87A Bell Lane, Hendon; 235 Old Marylebone Road
}}
'''UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers''' (UK Friends of AWIS; charity 1084272; company 04094203) is the British friends body of the [[Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers]] (Aguda Lemaan HaChayal). The parent was established in 1942 by [[David Ben-Gurion]]. The British company was incorporated on 20 October 2000. The 2007 annual return gave the public address as 235 Old Marylebone Road, London NW1 5QT, telephone 020 7724 6060. An archived page from 2002 gave 87A Bell Lane, Hendon, NW4 2SA.<ref name="AR2007">UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers, annual return for the year ended 31 December 2007, Charity Commission.</ref><ref name="Archive2002">[https://web.archive.org/web/20021020020149/http://www.ukawis.co.uk/about/ About], UK Friends of AWIS, Internet Archive, 20 October 2002.</ref>

Greer Fay Cashman, in the ''Jerusalem Post'', wrote that the British friends were set up by [[Alice Krieger]] at the instigation of Brig. Gen. [[Itzchaki Chen]], then defence attaché at the Israeli embassy, in the late 1990s.<ref name="JP">Greer Fay Cashman, “Friday Grapevine”, ''Jerusalem Post'', 18 August 2006.</ref> The site, as archived, said the object was “to promote the wellbeing of Israel's sons and daughters in uniform.”<ref name="About2014">[http://www.ukawis.co.uk/about/ About], UK Friends of AWIS, accessed 24 August 2014.</ref> The Charity Commission describes the objects as support for serving and discharged Israeli soldiers through the advancement of education and the provision of leisure facilities.<ref name="GOV">[https://www.gov.uk/government/news/regulator-issues-official-warning-to-charity-over-video-containing-distressing-content Regulator issues Official Warning to charity over video containing distressing content], Charity Commission, 22 July 2025.</ref>

The 2025 trustees’ report says the company raises money “to donate to Israel through the connected charity The Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers in Israel and other approved organisations.”<ref name="AR2025">UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers, trustees’ report and financial statements for the year ended 31 March 2025, pp. 4, 24, 29.</ref>

[[File:Screenshot 2026-10-01 at 17.16.27.png|thumb|right|450px|22 December 2023, one of the last screen captures before the site was shuttered.]]
[[File:Screenshot 2026-10-01 at 17.17.44.png|thumb|right|450px|24 March 2024 the website has been dark since around January. this is the first capture of the temporary holding page]]
== What the money buys ==

The 2014 project pages, and the site as it stood before it was taken down, described gifts to serving units rather than to discharged students only.

* Mobile synagogues for troops operating the Iron Dome in southern Israel, with an ark, reader’s platform and washbasin, called “a source of spiritual sustenance [for the soldiers] as they carry the weight of Israel's security on their shoulders.”<ref name="Guard2013">Oliver Wainwright, [https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/architecture-design-blog/2013/apr/02/russian-army-flying-church Russian army introduces the flying Orthodox church-in-a-box], ''Guardian'', 2 April 2013.</ref>
* An injured-soldiers fund, for gifts and recreational facilities.<ref name="Injured">[http://www.ukawis.co.uk/projects/40/injured-soldiers-fund/ Injured Soldiers Fund], UKAWIS, accessed 1 October 2014.</ref>
* Spirit: five-day vacations for combat units.<ref name="Spirit">[http://www.ukawis.co.uk/projects/58/spirit-five-day-vacations-for-combat-units/ Spirit], UKAWIS, accessed 1 October 2014.</ref>
* Refurbishment of rest and recreation clubs, mobile clubs, mobile gyms, and an upgraded rest and recreation club for frontline personnel.<ref name="Clubs">Project pages, UKAWIS, accessed 1 October 2014: rest and recreation clubs; mobile club; mobile gym; rest and recreation club.</ref>
* IMPACT scholarships for discharged combat soldiers from poor backgrounds.<ref name="IMPACT">[http://www.ukawis.co.uk/projects/33/impact-scholarship-project/ IMPACT], UKAWIS, accessed 1 October 2014.</ref>
* President’s scholarships: 120 a year, soldiers selected by the IDF, presented on Independence Day at the President’s residence, held until discharge and a place at a college.<ref name="Schol">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160606213404/http://www.ukawis.co.uk/projects/34/presidents-scholarships-granted-to-exemplary-soldiers/ President's Scholarships], UKAWIS, captured 6 June 2016.</ref>
* Jewish awareness, with the Military Rabbinate: Selichot tours for about 15,000 soldiers, costed at £52,500, and “In the Footsteps of the Maccabees” tours for about 15,000, costed at £104,500.<ref name="Aware">[http://www.ukawis.co.uk/projects/60/jewish-awareness/ Jewish Awareness], UKAWIS, accessed 1 October 2014.</ref>

Before the site went offline, ''Byline Times'' reported that it also invited donations for field-hospital equipment, for “adopting” an IDF combat regiment, and for army enlistment festivals.<ref name="Byline">[https://bylinetimes.com/2025/02/05/charity-commission-still-hasnt-concluded-investigation-into-uk-charity-one-year-after-revelation-it-raised-money-for-israeli-soldiers-using-video-of-killed-palestinians/ Charity Commission still hasn’t concluded investigation], ''Byline Times'', 5 February 2025.</ref>
== The Al Mayadeen account ==

David Miller, writing for Al Mayadeen stated that more than twenty British charities send money to [[UK Friends of AWIS]] and [[Beit Halochem UK]], and asked how those gifts meet the public-benefit test while Gaza was under assault. The piece uses the pool, the Levy gifts and a 2020 dinner list as its evidence.<ref name="Mayadeen">David Miller, Al Mayadeen, “British charities and companies funding the genocidal occupation”, text supplied for this page; also circulated as [https://english.almayadeen.net/articles/analysis/british-charities-and-companies-funding-the-genocidal-occupa the Al Mayadeen analysis].</ref>

=== The pool ===
[[File:UK AWIS pool base film.jpg|thumb|400px|Pool at a desert base. A woman in olive uniform films soldiers in the water. Frame at 0:38 of a 2:46 film carrying the UK Friends of AWIS material.]]

[[File:UK AWIS synchronised swimming.jpg|thumb|400px|Synchronised swimming display in the same film. A man on the poolside is filming.]]
Miller quoted AWIS on a pool opened in August 2021: “The combat soldiers who serve at this base work exceptionally hard in very difficult circumstances, and so the swimming pool is a perfect place for them to unwind, and it also upgrades the base to a new level. We are very proud of this.” The opening had a display by the Israeli national artistic swimming team, medal winners at the 2021 European Aquatics Championships in Budapest. The frames above, of soldiers in a base pool and of a synchronised team in red, are the images used with that passage.<ref name="Mayadeen"/>

=== Julian and Sian Levy ===
[[File:UK AWIS Julian Levy broadcast.jpg|thumb|400px|[[Julian Levy]], captioned on screen with the UK Friends of AWIS crest, beside a woman in a black t-shirt. Israeli broadcast, lower-third in Hebrew “שידור, בריטניה”.]]

[[File:UK AWIS board members broadcast.jpg|thumb|400px|The same broadcast. Subtitle: “board members of the AWIS.”]]

[[File:UK AWIS most important supporters.jpg|thumb|400px|Subtitle: “among the most important supporters of UK Friends of AWIS.”]]
The February 2023 living-space plaque names [[Rachel Levy]] and [[Daniel Levy]], for their bat and bar mitzvah, “in appreciation of the soldiers of the IDF.” Miller identified the adults in the ribbon-cutting frame as [[Julian Levy]] and [[Sian Levy]] of St John’s Wood, and called them major donors. The 2009 mobile-synagogue plaque names the same couple and four children: Avi, Jamie, Rachel and Daniel.

On an Israeli broadcast the lower-third calls Julian Levy a board member of UK Friends of AWIS, and a subtitle calls the couple “among the most important supporters.” Miller wrote that no such office appears on the charity’s website or in the accounts filed with the Commission and Companies House. The officer file read in October 2026 does not list either of them. He also reported that their son Avi, introduced on the same broadcast as a British recruit to the IDF, said: “It wasn’t like when I was 18 I decided I wanted to go to the army. From when I was very little — six years old — I said I want to go to the army… It was like fulfilling a dream of mine to come to Israel.”<ref name="Mayadeen"/><ref name="CH2026"/>

=== South Hampstead and Eli Kay ===
[[File:UK AWIS Eli Kay synagogue plaque 2023.jpg|thumb|400px|Plaque, March 2023, crests of UK Friends of AWIS and [[South Hampstead Synagogue]]: “This Synagogue is donated in memory of Eli Kay Z"L by families Bard, Benjamin, Bray, Cohen, Gordon, Jacobson, Kay, Taub and Traub of South Hampstead Shul, UK.”]]
The March 2023 synagogue plaque is in memory of [[Eli Kay]], given by the Bard, Benjamin, Bray, Cohen, Gordon, Jacobson, Kay, Taub and Traub families of [[South Hampstead Synagogue]]. Miller described Kay as a South African who had served in the Israeli forces and was killed by Palestinian fighters in November 2021, and wrote that the Israeli authorities then sent about 150 personnel to demolish the family home of the man who killed him.<ref name="Mayadeen"/>

=== Magen Avot and Nancy Reuben ===
[[File:UK AWIS Levy mobile synagogue plaque 2009.jpg|thumb|400px|Plaque, 2009: “This mobile synagogue is donated by Julian & Sian Levy and their children Avi, Jamie, Rachel and Daniel in appreciation of the soldiers of the IDF who protect the Jewish people. London, England – 2009.” Hebrew heading names the Association and the UK Friends.]]
Miller reported an appeal by [[Magen Avot]] for UK Friends of AWIS, in honour of Rabbi [[Joel Kenigsberg]] and [[Sarah Kenigsberg]], who “returned to Israel in the summer of 2022.” He placed the synagogue in the hall of [[Nancy Reuben Primary School]], 48 Finchley Lane, London NW4 1DJ, and wrote that it was initially set up with the support of Chief Rabbi [[Ephraim Mirvis]] and the [[United Synagogue]].

He cited a ''Times of Israel'' report that the school took part in a [[JNF UK]] programme. Head teacher [[Antony Wolfson]] told that paper his pupils had learned more about Israel through lessons from [[JNF UK]]’s [[Sari Rubin]]. The JNF, Miller wrote, had twinned the school with a school in the Naqab. The school’s 2020 accounts said it was a JNF partner school and that the JNF funded a teacher two days a week for Israel education and Ivrit. He also noted that the [[United Synagogue]] had called itself Zionist on a page taken down after 1 November 2023.<ref name="Mayadeen"/>
[[File:UK AWIS Levy ribbon cutting 2023.jpg|thumb|400px|Ribbon-cutting, February 2023. The plaque reads: “This living space is donated by Rachel and Daniel Levy together with their family on the occasion of their Bat and Bar Mitzvah in appreciation of the soldiers of the IDF who protect the Jewish People all round the world.” Crests of UK Friends of AWIS and the Israeli Association.]]

== Grants to the Israeli Association, 2013–2023 ==

The line is the donation to the Association, later styled LIBI Fund / the Association. The 2021 related-party note prints a comparative of £755,544. The expenditure note in the same set of accounts prints £155,544. The expenditure note is the figure used here.<ref name="AR2013">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 December 2013, note 6.</ref><ref name="AR2014">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 December 2014, donations made.</ref><ref name="AR2016">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the period ended 31 March 2016, related-party note.</ref><ref name="AR2017">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 March 2017.</ref><ref name="AR2019">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 March 2019, note: £535,821 (2018: £629,243).</ref><ref name="AR2020">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 March 2020: £402,632 to LIBI Fund / the Association.</ref><ref name="AR2021">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 March 2021, expenditure note £155,544.</ref><ref name="AR2022">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 March 2022: £110,202.</ref><ref name="AR2023">UK Friends of AWIS, accounts for the year ended 31 March 2023: £274,670.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Period !! Sent to the Association !! Income !! Note
|-
| Year to 31 December 2013 || £549,909 || £717,085 || Note 6, “donations made”. The 2012 comparative on the same line is the £494,666 already identified as the Israel transfer
|-
| Year to 31 December 2014 || £615,849 || — || “Donations made”. The 2016 note reprints this figure as “year to 31 December 2015”
|-
| 1 January 2015 to 31 March 2016 || £395,714 || — || Fifteen-month period. Year-end moves to 31 March
|-
| Year to 31 March 2017 || £473,038 || — || Named as a donation to the Association in Israel
|-
| Year to 31 March 2018 || £629,243 || — || Comparative in the 2019 accounts
|-
| Year to 31 March 2019 || £535,821 || — || No terms and conditions
|-
| Year to 31 March 2020 || £402,632 || — || Payee styled “LIBI Fund The Association for the Wellbeing of Israeli Soldiers”
|-
| Year to 31 March 2021 || £155,544 || — || Expenditure note. Related-party note prints £755,544 for the same year
|-
| Year to 31 March 2022 || £110,202 || — || LIBI Fund / the Association
|-
| Year to 31 March 2023 || £274,670 || — || LIBI Fund / the Association. Comparative £110,202
|-
| Year to 31 March 2024 || £468,625 || £763,163 || Already on the page
|-
| Year to 31 March 2025 || £331,003 || £374,934 || Already on the page
|}

Named transfers from the 2014 accounts through the 2023 accounts come to £3,742,772. Adding 2024 and 2025 takes the run from 2014 to £4,542,400. No separate 2015 calendar-year accounts are in the bundle. The fifteen-month period covers January 2015 to March 2016.

The trading subsidiary, [[UK AWIS Trading Limited]], was described in the 2012 report as supporting fundraising through trading. The 2025 accounts say that company was dormant and had been dissolved. Share capital £2.<ref name="AR2012"/><ref name="AR2025"/>

== The Commission case ==

The case was opened because of concerns that the charity was fundraising for military support for the IDF, which the Commission said would have been unlawful and outside the objects. A monitoring inspection found no evidence that funds had been misapplied outside the stated objects. During that engagement the Commission found a video on the website and the YouTube channel with a distressing scene, appearing to show a person being killed. The Commission later said the video did not in fact depict a killing, but was still distressing.<ref name="GOV"/>

''Byline Times'' had reported in January 2024 that the video appeared to be thermal-imaging footage of Palestinians being killed, and that the site then went offline. The trustees told the paper that, on legal advice, they suspended transfers to Israel pending the inquiry, and that after an interim report in July 2024 the transfers resumed.<ref name="Byline"/>

The Official Warning is dated 9 June 2025 and was published on 22 July 2025. It says the trustees outsourced editorial control of the website to a former executive director, who still provided consultancy, and to a PR agency, and allowed the video to be posted without reviewing it or asking whether it furthered the objects. The Commission called that misconduct and mismanagement, and a failure to act in the charity’s best interests. By 9 December 2025 the trustees were to confirm a review of other media, adopt a social media policy, and show they had read the Commission’s social media guidance. The Commission said the case remained open. The warning does not stop the grants to the Israeli parent. It is about the video and the absence of a publications policy.<ref name="GOV"/><ref name="OW">Official Warning under section 75A, UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel’s Soldiers (1084272), 9 June 2025, Charity Commission.</ref>

That is a different outcome from the warning to [[Chabad Lubavitch Centres North East London and Essex Limited]], where the Commission found a gift to a named soldier and the purchase of equipment were outside the objects. Here the Commission said it found no misapplied funds, and sanctioned the trustees for the video.<ref name="Chabad">[https://www.gov.uk/government/news/charity-issued-with-official-warning-over-support-for-foreign-military Charity issued with Official Warning over support for foreign military], Charity Commission, 9 January 2025.</ref>

== People ==

The existing page lists [[Efi Hellerstein]] as honorary president, and [[Julian Levy]] and [[Sian Levy]] as board members and donors. The director table below is the filing captured on that page, not a fresh extract.

{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Date of birth !! Appointed !! Resigned !! Residence
|-
| [[Zeev Chaim Remez]] || Secretary and director || January 1956 || 20 October 2000 || — || United Kingdom
|-
| [[Peter Alexander Sussmann]] || Director || December 1934 || 20 October 2000 || — || England
|-
| [[Joshua Eric Swidler]] || Director || August 1972 || 14 December 2016 || — || United States
|-
| [[Richard Justin Kemp]] || Director || April 1959 || — || 9 January 2018 || England
|-
| [[Julian Phillip Kemble]] || Director || January 1936 || 20 October 2000 || 14 December 2017 || United Kingdom
|-
| [[David Charles Tucker]] || Director || July 1962 || 25 May 2011 || 11 January 2019 || England
|-
| [[Anke Adler-Slottke]] || Director || January 1942 || 20 October 2000 || 14 June 2007 || —
|-
| [[Andrew David Balcombe]] || Director || August 1942 || 25 September 2002 || 12 September 2006 || —
|-
| [[Rachel Rogoff]] || Director || February 1958 || 4 September 2007 || 17 May 2011 || United Kingdom
|}

The 2005 accounts name as trustees [[Julian Kemble]], [[Zeev Remez]], [[Peter Sussmann]] and, from the later filing, [[David Tucker]]. Former trustees on that page: [[Anke Adler-Slottke]] and [[Andrew Balcombe]].<ref name="AR2005">UK Friends of AWIS, trustees’ report and financial statements for the year ended 31 December 2005.</ref>
=== Officers, October 2026 ===

[https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04094203/officers Companies House 04094203], read 1 October 2026. Correspondence address for the current directors is 1st Floor, Sackville House, 143–149 Fenchurch Street, London EC3M 6BL.<ref name="CH2026">[https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04094203/officers UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers officers], Companies House 04094203.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Status !! Date of birth !! Appointed !! Resigned !! Nationality !! Residence
|-
| [[Miguel Gerardo Abadi]] || Director || Active || March 1963 || 8 September 2025 || — || British || England
|-
| [[Richard Justin Kemp]] || Director || Active || April 1959 || 9 January 2018 || — || British || England
|-
| [[Benny Shachor]] || Director || Active || February 1993 || 8 September 2025 || — || Portuguese || England
|-
| [[Joshua Eric Swidler]] || Director || Active || August 1972 || 14 December 2016 || — || British || United States
|-
| [[Zeev Remez]] || Director || Resigned || January 1956 || 20 October 2000 || 8 December 2025 || British || United Kingdom
|-
| [[Zeev Remez]] || Secretary || Resigned || — || 20 October 2000 || 8 December 2025 || British || —
|-
| [[Peter Alexander Sussmann]] || Director || Resigned || December 1934 || 20 October 2000 || 8 December 2025 || British || England
|-
| [[Julian Phillip Kemble]] || Director || Resigned || January 1936 || 20 October 2000 || 14 December 2017 || British || United Kingdom
|-
| [[David Charles Tucker]] || Director || Resigned || July 1962 || 25 May 2011 || 11 January 2019 || British || United Kingdom
|-
| [[Rachel Rogoff]] || Director || Resigned || February 1958 || 4 September 2007 || 17 May 2011 || British || United Kingdom
|-
| [[Anke Adler-Slottke]] || Director || Resigned || January 1942 || 20 October 2000 || 14 June 2007 || British || —
|-
| [[Andrew David Balcombe]] || Director || Resigned || August 1942 || 25 September 2002 || 12 September 2006 || British || —
|}

Earlier drafts put Kemp’s 9 January 2018 date in the resigned column. That is the appointment date. He is still on the file.

'''Directors'''
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Position !! Date of birth !! Age !! Appointed on !! Resigned on !! Nationality !! Country of residence !! Occupation
|-
| [[Miguel Gerardo Abadi]] || Role Active || Director || March 1963 || 63 || 8 September 2025 || || British || England Identity verification due 3 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Richard Justin Kemp]] || Role Active || Director || April 1959 || 67 || 9 January 2018 || || British || England Identity verification due 3 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Benny Shachor]] || Role Active || Director || February 1993 || 33 || 8 September 2025 || || Portuguese || England Identity verification due 3 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Joshua Eric Swidler]] || Role Active || Director || August 1972 || 54 || 14 December 2016 || || British || United States Identity verification due 3 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Zeev Remez]] || Role Resigned || Secretary || || || 20 October 2000 || 8 December 2025 || British || || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Anke Adler-Slottke]] || Role Resigned || Director || January 1942 || 84 || 20 October 2000 || 14 June 2007 || British || || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Andrew David Balcombe]] || Role Resigned || Director || August 1942 || 84 || 25 September 2002 || 12 September 2006 || British || || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Julian Phillip Kemble]] || Role Resigned || Director || January 1936 || 90 || 20 October 2000 || 14 December 2017 || British || United Kingdom || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Zeev Remez]] || Role Resigned || Director || January 1956 || 70 || 20 October 2000 || 8 December 2025 || British || United Kingdom Identity verification due 3 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Rachel Rogoff]] || Role Resigned || Director || February 1958 || 68 || 4 September 2007 || 17 May 2011 || British || United Kingdom || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Peter Alexander Sussmann]] || Role Resigned || Director || December 1934 || 91 || 20 October 2000 || 8 December 2025 || British || England Identity verification due 3 November 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[David Charles Tucker]] || Role Resigned || Director || July 1962 || 64 || 25 May 2011 || 11 January 2019 || British || United Kingdom || Not disclosed
|}
Source: Companies House officers register.<ref name="CHOfficers">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04094203/officers UK FRIENDS OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE WELLBEING OF ISRAEL'S SOLDIERS officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

'''Persons with significant control'''
*PSC statement: The company knows or has reasonable cause to believe that there is no registrable person or registrable relevant legal entity in relation to the company (notified 20 October 2016)
Source: Companies House PSC register.<ref name="CHPSC">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04094203/persons-with-significant-control UK FRIENDS OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE WELLBEING OF ISRAEL'S SOLDIERS persons with significant control] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

== Donors ==

Known grants compiled from donor accounts and the AWIS filings, 2005–2013:

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" border="1" align="right" width="75%"> | [[The J Isaacs Charitable Trust]]

<tr><th colspan="11" bgcolor="goldenrod" align="center">Donors to the [[UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers]] in £ sterling <ref>Data compiled from filings at the Charity Commission and UK Friends of the Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers Trustees' Report and Consolidated Financial Statements 2005 - 2012. </ref></th></tr>
<tr>

<th bgcolor="goldenrod"> Organisation </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2005 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2006 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2007 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2008 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2009 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2010 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2011 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2012 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> 2013 </th><th bgcolor="goldenrod"> Total 2005-2013 </th></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[A M Charitable Trust]]</td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> 4,000 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[C H (1980) Charitable Trust]]</td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[Family Foundations Trust]]</td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 25,000 </td><td align="center"> 21,000 </td><td align="center"> 15,000 </td><td align="center"> 15,000 </td><td align="center"> 10,200 </td><td align="center"> 10,000 </td><td align="center"> 96,200 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[G R P Charitable Trust]]</td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td><td align="center"> 6,000 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[The Peltz Trust]]</td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 1,000 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 1,000 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[Phillips & Rubens Charitable Trust]]</td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,500 </td><td align="center"> 2,500 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 5,000 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">The [[R and S Cohen Foundation]]</td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 3,000 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 7,650 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 10,650 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">[[Stanley and Zea Lewis Family Foundation]]</td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 200 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 200 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">The [[Wigoder Family Foundation]]<ref>According to the annual report of the foundation the donation was made to the [[Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers]] rather than to [[UK AWIS]]. However, the donation is included under 'UK Grants' so it is assumed that the donation is to [[UK AWIS]] rather than to the Israeli parent organisation.</ref></td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 2,000 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"> Specific known donations total </td><td align="center"> 0 </td><td align="center"> 3,000 </td><td align="center"> 1,000 </td><td align="center"> 27,000 </td><td align="center"> 23,000 </td><td align="center"> 17,200 </td><td align="center"> 27,150 </td><td align="center"> 16,700 </td><td align="center"> 12,000 </td><td align="center"> 127,050 </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"> Total income declared by UK AWIS </td><td align="center"> 54,693 </td><td align="center"> 455,667 </td><td align="center"> 540,990 </td><td align="center"> 713,655 </td><td align="center"> 648,966 </td><td align="center"> 544,965 </td><td align="center"> 532,129 </td><td align="center"> 649,859 </td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> - </td></tr> <tr><td align="center"> '''Total income sent to the [[Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers]]''' </td><td align="center"> 74,000 </td><td align="center"> 455,118 </td><td align="center"> 434,242 </td><td align="center"> 518,995 </td><td align="center"> 547,059 </td><td align="center"> 408,629 </td><td align="center"> 410,229 </td><td align="center"> 494,666 </td><td align="center"> ? </td><td align="center"> 3,342,938 </td></tr>
</table>

The known lines total £127,050, against declared income in the hundreds of thousands. The [[Wigoder Family Foundation]] accounts named the Israeli Association and listed the gift under UK grants. [[Len Blavatnik]] and the [[Blavatnik Family Foundation]] appear on an archived Friends of the IDF page, not in this table.<ref name="FIDF">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110926152817/https://www.fidf.org/Page.aspx?pid=693 Friends of the IDF], Internet Archive, 26 September 2011.</ref>

[[UK AWIS - supporters]] also names, as donors to this charity, the [[David and Ruth Lewis Family Charitable Trust]], [[Denise Cohen Charitable Trust]], [[Gerald and Gail Ronson Family Foundation]], [[Jack Goldhill Charitable Trust]], [[Lawson Beckman Charitable Trust]], [[Loftus Charitable Trust]], [[Rosenblatt Family Charitable Trust]], [[The J E Joseph Charitable Trust]], [[The J Isaacs Charitable Trust]], [[The Locker Foundation]], [[The Maurice Hatter Foundation]] and [[The Phillips Family Charitable Trust]]. Several of those also give to [[Beit Halochem UK]], the [[Jerusalem Foundation]] or the [[Jewish National Fund]].<ref name="Supp">[https://powerbase.info/index.php/UK_AWIS_-_supporters UK AWIS - supporters], Powerbase.</ref>

=== Musry and the 2020 dinner ===
[[File:UK AWIS Musry clubhouse plaque 2022.jpg|thumb|400px|Clubhouse plaque, September 2022: “This clubhouse was donated by the Musry family in memory of Nissim Gourgi Musry. The soldiers of the IDF were always in his thoughts and prayers. They are our sons and daughters, brothers and sisters. A shield for all the Jewish people.”]]
The September 2022 clubhouse plaque is from the [[Musry]] family, in memory of [[Nissim Gourgi Musry]]: “The soldiers of the IDF were always in his thoughts and prayers.” Miller cited a 2008 ''Times'' report that the family, led by Nissim Musry and then valued at £45 million, owned about half of Wrengate, a Manchester textile importer founded in 1974, and that the family also gave to the [[United Jewish Israel Appeal]].<ref name="Mayadeen"/>

The 2020 UK Friends of AWIS dinner was sponsored by the Musry firm [[Oakbridge Financial Services Ltd]]. The brochure list was reproduced:

{| class="wikitable"
! Name on the brochure !! What the registers show !! Not found
|-
| [[Oakbridge Financial Services Ltd]] (sponsor) || Company 05274204, incorporated 1 November 2004, active. Mortgage finance. Office: 10 Riverview, The Embankment, Vale Road, Heaton Mersey, SK4 3GN. [[Nissim Gourgi Musry]] was a director until 25 March 2018, so he had already left the board by the 2020 dinner. The ''Times'' in 2008 valued the family at £45 million and said it owned about half of Wrengate, a Manchester textile firm founded in 1974 ||
|-
| [[Susan Gradel]] and [[David Gradel]], [[Leon and Bertha Gradel Trust]] || Charity 263745, registered 20 March 1972. Trust deed 31 March 1970. Objects: grants to religious, educational and social institutions, mainly in the UK and Israel. Address: Unit 5, Dancastle Court, 14 Arcadia Avenue, Finchley N3 2JU. David Gradel is named president and Susan Janet Gradel trustee. Reporting overdue. Income £16,500 in the year to 31 December 2020 ||
|-
| [[Corob Group]] || [[Corob Holdings Limited]], 00749041. Directors have included [[Sidney Corob]] (May 1923; resigned 22 April 2004) and [[Elizabeth Corob]] (August 1928; resigned 14 November 2016). [[Alison Lavinia Corob]] (April 1959) remains. The [[Sidney and Elizabeth Corob Charitable Trust]] was charity 266606. A 2024 LEI record marks that trust inactive from 29 November 2023 || Which trading company the brochure meant by “Corob Group” is not separately numbered here
|-
| [[Hassans International Law Firm Limited]] || Gibraltar firm. Companies House Gibraltar number 115509. Madison Building, Midtown, Queensway, Gibraltar GX11 1AA. LEI 254900702S2SZO1PUM67, active || No UK company number
|-
| [[Regatta]], [[Dare 2B]], [[Craghoppers]], [[Hawkshead]], Black family || Outdoor-clothing group. ''Jewish News'', 12 January 2022: [[Keith Black]], chief executive, elected chair of the [[Jewish Leadership Council]], succeeding [[Jonathan Goldstein]]. Manchester-born. Joined the family firm in 1981 after a law degree at Southampton. Moved to north London in 2009. Had been the [[Community Security Trust]] representative on the JLC council. Miller also ties him to [[UJIA]], the [[Peres Centre for Peace and Innovation]] and the [[Institute for National Security Studies]] ||
|-
| [[A R and V Group]], [[Jeffrey Azouz]] and [[Edward Azouz]] || [[A.R. & V. Investments Limited]], 00632484, incorporated 10 July 1959, active. Buying and selling its own real estate. Office: 68 Grafton Way, London W1T 5DS. Jeffrey Azouz, chartered surveyor, and Edward Azouz, chartered accountant, appointed May 1992. Edward Azouz correspondence address 30 Ferncroft Avenue, Hampstead NW3 7PH ||
|-
| [[Yamen Edward Nissim Foundation]] || Charity 1176117, registered 19 June 2017. Grants in England and Wales, especially London, for poverty, health and wellbeing, including charities focused on people of the Jewish faith. Also operates in Israel. Year to 31 July 2025: income £87,475, expenditure £92,354. Trustees: [[David Yamin-Joseph]] (chair), [[Veerasingham Ganeshan Jeyabavan]], [[Yael Rebecca Salem]]. The same three sit on [[Friends of Ohr Aaron]] and the [[David Cardozo Academy]] || No Nissim family trustee on the current register
|-
| [[Noé Group]] and [[Capreon]] || Same UK company, and one family. [[Capreon (UK) Limited]], 10469164, incorporated 8 November 2016 as NFO UK Real Estate Limited, renamed Noe Group UK Real Estate Limited on 3 January 2017, renamed Capreon (UK) Limited on 3 August 2017. Office: 2nd Floor, The Hide, 3 Kingly Court, London W1B 5PW. ''The Times'', 22 November 2017: [[Leo Noé]] set up the Noé Group as parent of Capreon, run by his sons [[Zvi Noé]] and [[Raphael Noé]], and of Goldacre Ventures, founded by his son-in-law [[David Bloom]]. The main figures behind the Noé Group and its real estate arm, Capreon, are members of the British property tycoon Noé family, alongside their executive leadership: 
*Leo Noé: The founder and Executive Chairman of the Noé Group. He is a prominent British property entrepreneur and philanthropist who established the family office in 2017. 
*[[Raphael Noé]]: Leo’s son, who serves as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Capreon. He leads Capreon's real estate investment strategies and operations across the UK and Europe. 
*[[Zvi Noé]]: Leo’s son and a Founding Partner of the Noé Group. He has heavy oversight of the ongoing asset management and property investments within the Capreon portfolio. 
* [[David Bloom]]: Leo's son-in-law and a founding partner within the group. While he specifically heads Goldacre (the digital infrastructure and proptech arm of the Noé Group), he works closely with the family on broader group operations. ||
|-
| [[Goldacre]] || The digital-infrastructure arm, not 02890608 or 12781352. [https://goldacre.com/ goldacre.com] people: [[David Bloom]], founding partner; [[Eddie Abrams]], managing partner; [[Elliot Glausiusz]], senior adviser; [[Andrew Feldman]], senior adviser. The Noé Group page styles him [[Lord Andrew Feldman]]. ''The Times'' identifies Bloom as Leo Noé’s son-in-law and Goldacre as part of the group || Company number of this Goldacre not on the site
|-
| [[Rachel Charitable Trust]] || Charity 276441, registered 14 September 1978. Grants for the sick and needy, schools and other institutions. Year to 30 June 2025: income £5,357,838, expenditure £5,033,534. Received the funds of Gableholt Limited, charity 276250, in May 2020. [[Robert Chalk]] is named for this trust on the Noé Group people page ||
|-
| [[Broome and Wellington]] || Manchester firm on the Yell listing. [[Broome & Wellington]], LP002040, incorporated 24 June 1969, active, 3rd Floor, Barlow House, 4 Minshull Street, Manchester M1 3DZ. [[Broome & Wellington (International) Limited]], 01930174, incorporated 11 July 1985, same address. [[Joshua Rowe]] (1948) is director and person with significant control; one filing gives residence as Israel, another as England. [[Michelle Berenice Rowe]] is a director. Phone on a directory: 0161 236 2317 || Trade not on the Companies House overview
|-
| [[Atlanticomnium UK]], [[Sabine Smouha]] and [[Jeremy Smouha]] || [[Atlanticomnium (UK) Limited]], 07884729, incorporated 16 December 2011, active. Office: Windsor House, Station Court, Station Road, Great Shelford, Cambridge CB22 5NE. [[Jeremy Alan Smouha]] (April 1959, British and French, lives in England) is a director and a person with significant control. [[Anthony Jack Smouha]] (May 1956, British and Swiss, lives in Switzerland) is the other controller || Sabine Smouha is not on the officer overview
|-
| [[Tuckers Solicitors]], in honour of Harold Tucker || [[Tuckers Solicitors LLP]], OC382272, incorporated 7 February 2013, active. Office: 39 Warren Street, London W1T 6AF || Harold Tucker’s dates and the family link are only the brochure line
|-
| Cara, Leon, Jonathan, Tali and David Blitz || One family. [[Leon Saul Blitz]] (May 1964) married [[Cara L Shapiro]], Camden, 1995 Q2. Births with mother’s maiden name Shapiro, Westminster: [[Jonathan Ilan Blitz]] 1998, [[Tali Lior Blitz]] 2000, [[David Gadi Blitz]] 2004. [[Blitz Associates Limited]], 07143112, dissolved. Leon Saul Blitz and Cara Blitz (September 1970) appointed directors 2 February 2010; Leon also secretary. Address 8-12 York Gate, 100 Marylebone Road, NW1 4QG. His file also has [[Jnetics]] (07087270) and a resigned post at [[UK Israel Business]] (00488496). A published profile calls him co-founder of Grovepoint and a former Investec executive || The Chigwell David Blitz of ET Clay Products is not this David.
|-
| [[Wilder Coe Ltd]] || Company 10201730, incorporated 26 May 2016, active. Accountants. Office: 1st Floor, Sackville House, 143–149 Fenchurch Street, London EC3M 6BL. That is the correspondence address of the current UK Friends of AWIS directors ||
|-
| [[Roses Drapery Stores Ltd]] || Company 00914518, incorporated 4 September 1967, active. Development of building projects. Office: 843 Finchley Road, London NW11 8NA || Family behind it not on the overview
|-
| [[Tina Cole]] and [[Michael Cole]] || Trustees of the removed [[MTC Charitable Trust]] (charity 1111044; previous name The Tina and Michael Cole Charitable Trust; trust deed 25 July 2005; registered 25 August 2005; removed 30 August 2024, “does not operate”).<ref name="MTC">[[Charity Commission]], [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/4016148/full-print MTC CHARITABLE TRUST - 1111044].</ref> Year to 31 March 2020: trustees Tina Cole, Michael Cole and Joshua Cole; office 64 Marlborough Place, London NW8 0PL (printed “Malborough” on the administrative page). Donations in £35,851 (2019: £1,000). Note 5 grants to institutions £16,380 (2019: £1,305 “Other”); the trustees’ narrative states grants of £34,928. Named 2020 grants: [[StandWithUs UK]] £300; Women’s Jewish Aid £2,000; [[Jewish Care]] £5,000; [[United Hatzalah of Israel]] £1,800; [[Holocaust Educational Trust]] £2,500; [[St John's Wood Synagogue]] £2,580; [[Magen David Adom UK]] £1,800; “Association of Well being of Israeli Soldiers” £400. No trustee remuneration. Year-end cash £18,548, held by a trustee. Accounts signed by Michael Cole, 22 June 2021; examiner Muneeza Baig, HW Fisher LLP.<ref name="AR2020">MTC Charitable Trust, ''Annual Report and Unaudited Financial Statements for the year ended 31 March 2020''.</ref> Objects include relief of poverty, education, and advancement of Orthodox Judaism “in accordance with the doctrines and principles laid down by the Office of the Chief Rabbi.” External applications not considered.<ref name="MTC" /><ref name="AR2020" /> || Michael Cole married Tina E Rogers, Dudley registration district, Staffordshire, April–June 1979, volume 33, page 0545.<ref name="Marr">England & Wales marriages 1837–2005, Michael Cole and Tina E Rogers, Q2 1979, Dudley, vol. 33, p. 0545. Index: [https://www.freebmd.org.uk/cgi/search.pl?type=Marriages&start=1979&end=1979&sq=2&surname=Cole&firstname=Michael&spouse=Rogers FreeBMD search].</ref> Tina E Rogers, birth registered Q1 1959, Wednesbury, Staffordshire, mother’s maiden name Rogers, volume 9B, page 1092.<ref name="Birth">England & Wales births 1837–2006, Tina E Rogers, Q1 1959, Wednesbury, vol. 9B, p. 1092. Index: [https://www.gro.gov.uk/gro/content/certificates/indexes_search.asp GRO indexes].</ref> Jewish Care’s annual review 2020–21 lists “Tina & Michael Cole” among Friends (list correct as of January 2021), not among Patrons. The same review’s Bridge Queens committee includes a “Tina Cole”; that is a name-only match and is not confirmed as the same person.<ref name="JC2021">Jewish Care, [https://jewishcare.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Jewish_Care_Annual_Review_Jan22.pdf Annual Review 2020–2021], Friends list and Bridge Queens.</ref>
|}
Miller’s count of “almost thirty” charities is the supporters list already on [[UK AWIS - supporters]], plus [[Beit Halochem UK]] as the second recipient. The named dinner sponsors above are not on that charity table.<ref name="Mayadeen"/><ref name="Supp"/>

== Contact ==

:235 Old Marylebone Road
:London NW1 5QT
:020 3210 3060
:ukawis@ukawis.net
:ukawis.co.uk, archived at [https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.ukawis.co.uk/ the Internet Archive]

== See also ==

* [[UK AWIS Trading Limited]]
* [[Association for the Wellbeing of Israel's Soldiers]]
* [[Aguda Lemaan Hachayal]]
* [[Friends of the IDF]]
* [[Beit Halochem UK]]
* [[UK AWIS - supporters]]
* [[Chabad Lubavitch Centres North East London and Essex Limited]]

== Notes ==
<references/>

[[Category:Israel Lobby]]
[[Category:Zionist movement UK]]
[[Category:Charity Commission investigation]]

Hillel Zaltzman

2026-10-17T09:31:33Z

David: /* Works */

{{short description|Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman, chairman of Chamah, organisation promoting Judaism among FSU immigrants}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = 1939
| birth_place = [[Kharkiv]], [[Ukraine]]
| nationality = Israeli / American
| occupation = Rabbi, organisation leader, author
| known_for = President of Chamah
| organisation = [[Chamah]]
}}

'''Rabbi '''Hillel Zaltzman''''' (born 1939) is a rabbi, author, and chairman (president) of '''Chamah''' (also referred to as Hama), an organisation dedicated to spreading and preserving Judaism among Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet Union (FSU).<ref name="JRCC">Jewish Russian Community Centre, [https://www.jrcc.org/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/3145784/jewish/Rabbi-Hillel-Zaltzman.htm Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman] ''JRCC.org'', accessed June 2026.</ref><ref name="Chamah">Chamah.org, [https://www.chamah.org/ About] ''Chamah.org'', accessed June 2026.</ref>

== Biography ==
Born in Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1939, Zaltzman grew up under Soviet rule. As a teenager, he joined the underground Jewish organisation Chamah in Samarkand to preserve Jewish life and provide assistance amid persecution.<ref name="JRCC" /><ref name="ChabadZaltzman">Chabad.org, [https://www.chabad.org/search/keyword_cdo/kid/20470/jewish/Hillel-Zaltzman.htm Hillel Zaltzman] ''Chabad.org'', accessed June 2026.</ref>

He later immigrated to Israel and continued his work, eventually leading Chamah internationally.<ref name="JRCC" />

== Chamah Organisation ==
Chamah, founded as an underground network in the Soviet Union, transitioned to formal activities supporting Jewish education, humanitarian aid, and religious revival among FSU immigrants in Israel, the US, and elsewhere.<ref name="Chamah" /><ref name="JewishBookCouncil">Jewish Book Council, [https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/hillel-zaltzman Hillel Zaltzman] ''Jewish Book Council'', accessed June 2026.</ref>

Under Rabbi Zaltzman's leadership as president, it has expanded to include social services, medical aid, Jewish outreach, and community programmes.<ref name="Chamah" />

== Works ==
Zaltzman authored ''[[The Jewish Underground of Samarkand - A Memoir and a History, Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman|Samarkand: The Underground with a Far-Reaching Impact]]'', detailing the Jewish resistance in the Soviet Union.<ref name="ChabadZaltzman" />

== See also ==
* [[Chamah]]
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch]]
* [[Judaism in the Soviet Union]]

== External links ==
[https://www.chamah.org/ Chamah Official Website]

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Category:Israeli rabbis]]
[[Category:Jewish educators|Zaltzman, Hillel]]
[[Category:Rabbis]]

Hillel Zaltzman

2026-10-17T09:31:22Z

David: /* Works */

{{short description|Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman, chairman of Chamah, organisation promoting Judaism among FSU immigrants}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = 1939
| birth_place = [[Kharkiv]], [[Ukraine]]
| nationality = Israeli / American
| occupation = Rabbi, organisation leader, author
| known_for = President of Chamah
| organisation = [[Chamah]]
}}

'''Rabbi '''Hillel Zaltzman''''' (born 1939) is a rabbi, author, and chairman (president) of '''Chamah''' (also referred to as Hama), an organisation dedicated to spreading and preserving Judaism among Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet Union (FSU).<ref name="JRCC">Jewish Russian Community Centre, [https://www.jrcc.org/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/3145784/jewish/Rabbi-Hillel-Zaltzman.htm Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman] ''JRCC.org'', accessed June 2026.</ref><ref name="Chamah">Chamah.org, [https://www.chamah.org/ About] ''Chamah.org'', accessed June 2026.</ref>

== Biography ==
Born in Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1939, Zaltzman grew up under Soviet rule. As a teenager, he joined the underground Jewish organisation Chamah in Samarkand to preserve Jewish life and provide assistance amid persecution.<ref name="JRCC" /><ref name="ChabadZaltzman">Chabad.org, [https://www.chabad.org/search/keyword_cdo/kid/20470/jewish/Hillel-Zaltzman.htm Hillel Zaltzman] ''Chabad.org'', accessed June 2026.</ref>

He later immigrated to Israel and continued his work, eventually leading Chamah internationally.<ref name="JRCC" />

== Chamah Organisation ==
Chamah, founded as an underground network in the Soviet Union, transitioned to formal activities supporting Jewish education, humanitarian aid, and religious revival among FSU immigrants in Israel, the US, and elsewhere.<ref name="Chamah" /><ref name="JewishBookCouncil">Jewish Book Council, [https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/hillel-zaltzman Hillel Zaltzman] ''Jewish Book Council'', accessed June 2026.</ref>

Under Rabbi Zaltzman's leadership as president, it has expanded to include social services, medical aid, Jewish outreach, and community programmes.<ref name="Chamah" />

== Works ==
Zaltzman authored ''[[The Jewish Underground of Samarkand - A Memoir and a History, Rabbi Hillel Zaltzman|Samarkand: The Underground with a Far-Reaching Impact'', detailing the Jewish resistance in the Soviet Union.<ref name="ChabadZaltzman" />

== See also ==
* [[Chamah]]
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch]]
* [[Judaism in the Soviet Union]]

== External links ==
[https://www.chamah.org/ Chamah Official Website]

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Category:Israeli rabbis]]
[[Category:Jewish educators|Zaltzman, Hillel]]
[[Category:Rabbis]]

Template:Infobox organization

2026-10-17T08:59:35Z

David:

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<noinclude>
{{documentation}}
</noinclude>

Template:Infobox event

2026-10-17T08:58:25Z

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! style="border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.2em;" {{!}} Website
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}}{{#if:{{{other|}}}|<nowiki/>
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|}
<noinclude>
{{documentation}}
</noinclude>

Template:Infobox event/doc

2026-10-17T08:57:37Z

David: Created page with "== Usage == '''Infobox event''' is for events, abuse cases, fraud cases, scandals, regulatory inquiries, court cases, and protests or campaign actions. It is styled to match [..."

== Usage ==
'''Infobox event''' is for events, abuse cases, fraud cases, scandals, regulatory inquiries, court cases, and protests or campaign actions. It is styled to match [[Template:Infobox organization]]. Every field is optional: a row only appears when its field has a value, so leave out or blank anything that does not apply.

=== Image ===
Use '''image''' or '''logo''' (image takes priority). Any of these forms works:
* <code>image=Example.jpg</code>
* <code>image=File:Example.jpg</code>
* <code>image=<nowiki>[[File:Example.jpg|200px]]</nowiki></code> (the size in the link is used as given)
'''image_size''' sets the width for the first two forms (default 250px). '''caption''' appears under the image.

=== Blank call (copy and paste) ===
<pre>
{{Infobox event
|name =
|image =
|image_size =
|caption =
|type =
|date =
|start_date =
|end_date =
|location =
|participants =
|organisers =
|accused =
|victims =
|charges =
|court =
|verdict =
|regulator =
|inquiry_status =
|casualties =
|arrests =
|convictions =
|cause =
|outcome =
|website =
|other =
}}
</pre>

=== Parameters ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Parameter !! Use
|-
| name || Title shown at the top (defaults to the page name)
|-
| image / logo || Picture: bare filename, File:Name, or full <nowiki>[[File:...]]</nowiki> link
|-
| image_size || Width for bare/File: images (default 250px)
|-
| caption || Text under the image
|-
| type || e.g. Scandal, Court case, Regulatory inquiry, Protest, Fraud case
|-
| date || Single date of the event
|-
| start_date / end_date || For events lasting a period
|-
| location || Where it happened
|-
| participants / organisers || Who took part / who organised it
|-
| accused / victims || Parties accused / people or groups harmed
|-
| charges / court / verdict || For legal cases
|-
| regulator / inquiry_status || For regulatory or public inquiries (e.g. Ongoing, Reported 2016)
|-
| casualties / arrests / convictions || Numbers or short descriptions
|-
| cause || Cause or trigger
|-
| outcome || Result or consequences
|-
| website || Official or campaign site
|-
| other || Anything else
|}

=== Example ===
<pre>
{{Infobox event
|name = Example court case
|image = Example.jpg
|caption = Court building
|type = Court case
|start_date = 3 March 2021
|end_date = 10 June 2022
|location = London
|accused = [[Example Ltd]]
|charges = Fraud
|court = Southwark Crown Court
|verdict = Guilty
|outcome = Fined £2m
}}
</pre>
<includeonly>[[Category:Infobox templates]]</includeonly>

Andrew Rathmell

2026-10-16T17:45:26Z

David: David moved page Andrew Rathmell to Andrew James Rathmell

#REDIRECT [[Andrew James Rathmell]]

Andrew James Rathmell

2026-10-16T17:45:26Z

David: David moved page Andrew Rathmell to Andrew James Rathmell

'''Andrew James Rathmell''' (born 20 October 1966) is a British security consultant and former academic. He is currently a director at the corporate security and 'stabilisation' consultancy [[Libra Advisory Group]].

==Education==
Rathmell holds a PhD from London University and an MA from Balliol College Oxford. He also studied at George Washington University and in Damascus.<ref>Libra Advisory Group, [http://www.libraadvisorygroup.com/rathmell.htm Libra Advisory Group Team: Andrew Rathmell] (accessed 23 May 2008)</ref>

==Career==
Until 2001 Rathmell was Senior Lecturer in War Studies at King’s College London and director of the [[International Centre for Security Analysis]]. Between 2001 and 2006 he was RAND Europe’s Defence and Security research programme where he managed studies for European and US governments on Stabilisation and Reconstruction operations, homeland security, counter-terrorism and Critical Infrastructure Protection.<ref>Libra Advisory Group, [http://www.libraadvisorygroup.com/rathmell.htm Libra Advisory Group Team: Andrew Rathmell] (accessed 23 May 2008)</ref> As a director of [[Libra Advisory Group]], Rathmell has been chief planner for the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq; director of a UK-funded programme to rebuild the Iraqi interior ministry; lead consultant on a World Bank review of Governance capacity building in Iraq; an advisor to the UK’s Post-Conflict Reconstruction Unit; and member of the US Government’s Iraq Joint Strategic Assessment Team.<ref>Libra Advisory Group, [http://www.libraadvisorygroup.com/rathmell.htm Libra Advisory Group Team: Andrew Rathmell] (accessed 23 May 2008)</ref>

==Affiliations==
*[[Libra Advisory Group]], director
*[[Rand Europe]]
*[[Information Assurance Advisory Council]] (IAAC), founder and former CEO
*[[International Centre for Security Analysis]], former director

==Notes==
<references/>
[[Category:Terrorologist|Rathmell. Andrew]][[Category:CPA Iraq|Rathmell, Andrew]]

Unit 8200

2026-10-16T16:14:02Z

David:

{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name = Unit 8200
|native_name = יחידה 8200
|image =
|caption =
|dates = 1948–present (as Unit 848 until 1976)
|country = Israel
|branch = [[Israel Defence Forces]]
|type = Signals intelligence (SIGINT), cyber warfare
|role = Signals intelligence, code-breaking, cyber operations
|command_structure = [[Aman|Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman)]]
|garrison = Camp Glilot, north of Tel Aviv
|other_names = Central Collection Unit; Israeli SIGINT National Unit (ISNU)
|commander1 = Brigadier General "A" (name withheld)
|commander1_label = Current commander
}}
[[Unit 8200]] is the signal intelligence and code deciphering arm of the [[Israel Defence Forces]]. It is the largest unit in the IDF and is headquartered at at Camp Glilot, north of Tel Aviv.<ref>Amos Harel, [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1090358.html Mystery surrounds suicide of officer from elite intel unit], Haaretz, 5 June 2009.</ref> Until recently, it was usually referred to in public as the Central Collection Unit.<ref name="SpiesIncp12">Stacy Perman, ''Spies Inc. Business Innovation from Israel's Masters of Espionage'', Pearson Education, 2005, p.12.</ref> According to ''Israel Hayom'', Unit 8200 is the '''Israeli Sigint National Unit''' referred to in [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) documents released by [[Edward Snowden]].<ref>[http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=11927 Report: NSA routinely shares raw intelligence with Israel], ''Israel Hayom'', 12 September 2013.</ref> It operates under the IDF's [[Aman|Military Intelligence Directorate]], and is broadly comparable in function to the US [[National Security Agency]].<ref name="972Azure">Yuval Abraham, [https://www.972mag.com/microsoft-8200-intelligence-surveillance-cloud-azure/ Microsoft storing Israeli intelligence trove used to attack Palestinians], ''+972 Magazine'', 6 August 2025.</ref>

The unit has been linked in published reporting to the [[Stuxnet]], [[Flame]] and [[Duqu]] cyber-attacks, the intelligence that led to the 2007 strike on the Syrian reactor at al-Kibar, and the 2024 pager attacks in Lebanon. Since 2014 it has faced growing criticism over its mass surveillance of Palestinians, its storage of intercepted Palestinian phone calls on [[Microsoft]] cloud servers, and its role in AI-assisted targeting in Gaza. Its veterans are prominent in the Israeli and global technology industry.

==History==

===Unit 848===
Prior to 1976, the unit was known as '''Unit 848'''.<ref>Ephraim Kahana, ''Historical Dictionary of Israeli Intelligence'', Scarecrow Press, 2006, p.43.</ref>

====Masrega====
Masrega was a Cold War-era unit within Unit 848 focused on the Soviet Union.<ref>Dima P. Adamsky, ''American and Israeli Intelligence Failure'', in Nigel John Ashton, ed., ''The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967-73'', Routledge, 2007, p.124.</ref>
*[[Nehemiah Burgin]] - head of the Translations Desk, c.1973.<ref>Dima P. Adamsky, ''American and Israeli Intelligence Failure'', in Nigel John Ashton, ed., ''The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967-73'', Routledge, 2007, p.130.</ref>

===1973 Yom Kippur War===
Col. [[Yoel Ben-Porat]] commanded the unit (then Unit 848) during the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]].<ref>Ephraim Kahana, ''Historical Dictionary of Israeli Intelligence'', Scarecrow Press, 2006, p.43.</ref> According to a 2019 study by the Center for Security Studies at ETH Zurich, it was following the war that the unit "adopted its modern form", and its general organisation has remained fairly stable since.<ref name="ETH2019">Center for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zürich, [https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/Cyber-Reports-2019-12-Unit-8200.pdf Trend Analysis: The Israeli Unit 8200 – An OSINT-based study], ''CSS Cyber Defense Project'', December 2019.</ref>

===Autonomy recommendation===
In 2004 a Knesset committee recommended turning the unit into an autonomous entity separate from the Defense Ministry, along the lines of its US equivalent, the [[National Security Agency]].<ref>Amos Harel, [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1090358.html Mystery surrounds suicide of officer from elite intel unit], Haaretz, 5 June 2009.</ref>

===Syrian reactor, 2007===
According to ''Der Spiegel'', the NSA noticed unusually heavy telephone traffic between Syria and North Korea, including a link between Pyongyang and al-Kibar in eastern Syria, and passed a dossier to Unit 8200, which flagged the site for further intelligence work. Israel destroyed the facility in an air strike in September 2007 ("Operation Orchard").<ref name="Spiegel2009">Erich Follath and Holger Stark, [https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/the-story-of-operation-orchard-how-israel-destroyed-syria-s-al-kibar-nuclear-reactor-a-658663.html The Story of 'Operation Orchard': How Israel Destroyed Syria's Al Kibar Nuclear Reactor], ''Der Spiegel'', 2 November 2009.</ref> Israel officially acknowledged the strike in 2018.<ref>Reuters, [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-syria-nuclear-idUSKBN1GX09K/ Israel admits bombing suspected Syrian nuclear reactor in 2007, warns Iran], ''Reuters'', March 2018.</ref>

===Cyber-attacks: Stuxnet, Flame and Duqu===
UPI reported in June 2012 that the [[Unit 8200]] had been involved in the [[Stuxnet]] and [[Flame]] cyber-attacks:
::Unit 8200 is widely seen to have been a key player in the Flame cyber attack on Iran, and some Arab states, in recent weeks.

::It was also deeply involved in the ground-breaking Stuxnet malware attack on Iran's uranium enrichment program, a vital element in the quest for nuclear weapons, in 2009-10 that U.S. officials say was jointly mounted by Israel and the United States.<ref>[http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2012/06/04/Unit-8200-and-Israels-high-tech-whiz-kids/UPI-43661338833765/ Unit 8200 and Israel's high-tech whiz kids], upi.com, 4 June 2012.</ref>

In June 2015 the security firm Kaspersky Lab disclosed "Duqu 2.0", a successor to the Duqu malware, which had infected hotels used as venues for the P5+1 nuclear negotiations with Iran. The ''Guardian'' reported that the virus was linked to Israel; Israel denied involvement.<ref>[http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jun/11/duqu-20-computer-virus-with-traces-of-israeli-code-was-used-to-hack-iran-talks Duqu 2.0: computer virus 'linked to Israel' found at Iran nuclear talks venue], ''The Guardian'', 11 June 2015.</ref> The ETH Zurich study lists Stuxnet, Flame and Duqu among operations attributed to the unit.<ref name="ETH2019"/>

===Syria chemical weapons intercepts, 2013===
In August 2013, the German ''Focus'' website claimed that Unit 8200 had intercepted communications which showed that the Syrian regime was responsible for poison gas attacks near Damascus.<ref>[http://www.focus.de/politik/ausland/krise-in-der-arabischen-welt/syrien/bundeskanzlerin-im-focus-interview-giftgasmassaker-in-syrien-merkel-fordert-zugang-fuer-un-inspekteure_aid_1080416.html Bundeskanzlerin im FOCUS-InterviewGiftgasmassaker in Syrien: Merkel fordert Zugang für UN-Inspekteure], ''Focus'', 24 August 2013.</ref><ref>Adiv Sterman, [http://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-intercepted-syrian-regime-chatter-on-chemical-attack/ ‘IDF intercepted Syrian regime chatter on chemical attack’], ''The Times of Israel'', 26 August 2013.</ref>

===7 October 2023 and the Sariel resignation===
Unit 8200 was among the Israeli intelligence bodies criticised over the failure to anticipate the Hamas-led attack of 7 October 2023. Its commander, Brig. Gen. [[Yossi Sariel]], informed the Chief of Staff, [[Herzi Halevi]], of his resignation in September 2024, saying "I did not fulfill my mission".<ref name="jpost">The Jerusalem Post, [https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-819875 IDF intelligence Unit 8200 commander informs Halevi of resignation] ''The Jerusalem Post'', 12 September 2024.</ref><ref name="toi">The Times of Israel, [https://www.timesofisrael.com/i-did-not-fulfill-my-mission-commander-of-idfs-8200-intelligence-unit-resigns/ ‘I did not fulfill my mission’: Commander of IDF’s 8200 intelligence unit resigns] ''The Times of Israel'', 12 September 2024.</ref> He formally handed over command in 2025 to a successor identified only as Brigadier General "A", using his farewell speech to accept responsibility for the failure.<ref name="jpost2">The Jerusalem Post, [https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-845647 'I wish to part with forgiveness': Outgoing commander says he failed] ''The Jerusalem Post'', 2025.</ref><ref name="n12">N12, [https://www.mako.co.il/news-military/2025_q1/Article-eca9694e8d48591027.htm אחרי מחדל 7 באוקטובר: מפקד חדש מונה ליחידה 8200] (After the 7 October failure: a new commander appointed to Unit 8200), ''N12/Mako'', 2025 (Hebrew).</ref>

Sariel had earlier been publicly identified in April 2024, when the ''Guardian'' reported that a book he had published under a pen name left a digital trail to his identity (see [[#AI targeting in Gaza|AI targeting in Gaza]]).<ref name="GuardianSariel">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/05/top-israeli-spy-chief-exposes-his-true-identity-in-online-security-lapse Top Israeli spy chief exposes his true identity in online security lapse], ''The Guardian'', 5 April 2024.</ref>

===Lebanon pager attacks, 2024===
On 17–18 September 2024 thousands of pagers and walkie-talkies used by [[Hezbollah]] members exploded across Lebanon. Israel did not claim responsibility at the time. Reuters, citing a single Western security source, reported that Unit 8200 was involved in the planning, including testing how explosive material could be inserted into the devices during manufacture; the operation has otherwise been widely attributed to the [[Mossad]].<ref name="ReutersPagers">Reuters, [https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollah-pager-attack-puts-spotlight-israels-cyber-warfare-unit-8200-2024-09-18/ Hezbollah pager attack puts spotlight on Israel's cyber warfare Unit 8200], ''Reuters'', 18 September 2024.</ref> The division of roles between the agencies has not been officially confirmed.

==Organisation and recruitment==
The ETH Zurich study describes Unit 8200 as falling under the jurisdiction of Aman, and reports that it has changed commanders roughly every four years on average.<ref name="ETH2019"/> The names of serving commanders are normally withheld; recent commanders have been referred to publicly by an initial.<ref name="ynet">Ynet News, [https://www.ynetnews.com/article/bkmn6qtjke Brig. Gen. A. appointed as new commander of Unit 8200] ''Ynet News''.</ref>

===Recruitment: Magshimim===
The unit recruits heavily among technically able high-school students. [[Magshimim]], a three-year after-school cyber programme run with the [[Rashi Foundation]] for 10th–12th grade students in Israel's geographic periphery, aims to prepare them for elite IDF technology units and the high-tech sector.<ref>Rashi Foundation, [https://rashi.org.il/en/programs/magshimim-new/ Magshimim], ''Rashi Foundation'', accessed 16 October 2026.</ref>

===Unit Hatzav===
[[Unit Hatzav]] is the open source intelligence unit within Unit 8200. It is responsible for obtaining intelligence and counterintelligence from television, radio, newspapers, and the Internet.<ref>Cnaan Lipshitz, [http://www.haaretz.com/native-english-speakers-have-lost-exclusive-status-with-idf-intelligence-1.268742 Native English speakers have lost exclusive status with IDF Intelligence], ''Haaretz'', 17 July 2012.</ref> Hatzav produced a daily summary of the Arab press which is distributed to intelligence desks and decision makers.<ref>Ron Schleifer, ''Psychological Warfare in the Intifada: Israeli And Palestinian Media Politics And Military Strategies'', Sussex Academic Press, 2005, p.5.</ref>

The unit was re-organised in 2007, according to ''Haaretz'':
::In 2007 Hatzav was split up, with some members assigned to each Unit 8200 division that deals with a specific country or with the Palestinian Authority. It was meant to increase cooperation between the departments monitoring different sources of information, but has instead reduced Israel's intelligence capabilities, according to the sources. They said that over the past two years, the commanders of Hatzav and of Unit 8200 have been attempting to improve Hatzav, with limited success.<ref name="IDFlapse">Barak Ravid, [http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/officials-israel-outsources-monitoring-of-palestinian-media-after-idf-lapse-1.410082 Officials: Israel outsources monitoring of Palestinian media after IDF lapse], ''Haaretz'', 31 January 2012.</ref>

With the onset of the Arab Spring in 2011, a decision was taken to increase military intelligence coverage of Arabic language social media. According to Israeli government sources quoted by ''Haaretz'', this forced a reduction in resources devoted to mainstream media such as television broadcasts. As a result, the government increasingly relied on two right-wing private organisations, [[MEMRI]] and [[Palestinian Media Watch]] for coverage of anti-Israeli material in the Arab media. Government officials had reportedly complained about the situation to the head of [[Aman|military intelligence]], [[Aviv Kochavi]]. In a response to ''Haaretz'', the IDF insisted it was monitoring Arab media "24 hours a day, every day of the week, in a wide variety of fields, including the Palestinian field".<ref name="IDFlapse">Barak Ravid, [http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/officials-israel-outsources-monitoring-of-palestinian-media-after-idf-lapse-1.410082 Officials: Israel outsources monitoring of Palestinian media after IDF lapse], ''Haaretz'', 31 January 2012.</ref>

==Foreign partnerships==
===US intelligence-sharing deal===
The Israeli Sigint National Unit agreed a deal for the mutual exchange of raw signals intelligence with the US [[National Security Agency]] in 2009, according to documents released by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden.<ref name="GreenwaldNSAISNU">Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras and Ewen MacAskill, [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/11/nsa-americans-personal-data-israel-documents?CMP=twt_gu NSA shares raw intelligence including Americans' data with Israel], ''Guardian'', 11 September 2013.</ref> According to the ''Guardian'', the memorandum of understanding allowed the NSA to pass on raw intercepts that could include the communications of US citizens.<ref name="GreenwaldNSAISNU"/>

The NSA also passed telephone-traffic intelligence on Syria and North Korea to Unit 8200 before the 2007 strike on al-Kibar.<ref name="Spiegel2009"/>

==Surveillance of Palestinians==
===2014 reservists' letter===
In September 2014, 43 veterans of Unit 8200, including reservists, published a letter to Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] and military chiefs refusing to serve in operations against Palestinians, saying that innocent people living under military rule were exposed to surveillance and that intelligence was used for political persecution.<ref>Peter Beaumont, [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/12/israeli-intelligence-reservists-refuse-serve-palestinian-territories Israeli intelligence veterans refuse to serve in Palestinian territories], ''The Guardian'', 12 September 2014.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/12/israeli-intelligence-veterans-letter-netanyahu-military-chiefs Israeli intelligence veterans' letter to Netanyahu and military chiefs – in full], ''The Guardian'', 12 September 2014.</ref>

===Microsoft Azure===
In August 2025 a joint investigation by the ''Guardian'', ''+972 Magazine'' and ''Local Call'' reported that Unit 8200 had used a customised area of [[Microsoft]]'s Azure cloud platform to store audio files of millions of phone calls made by Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank. The system became operational in 2022. Based on leaked Microsoft documents and 11 sources, the reporting said the trove had been used to plan air strikes in Gaza and as a basis for arrests in the West Bank. Microsoft said it was unaware its products had been used for surveillance of civilians.<ref name="GuardianAzure">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/aug/06/microsoft-israeli-military-palestinian-phone-calls-cloud ‘A million calls an hour’: Israel relying on Microsoft cloud for expansive surveillance of Palestinians], ''The Guardian'', 6 August 2025.</ref><ref name="972Azure"/>

Microsoft opened a review on 15 August 2025. On 25 September 2025 its president, [[Brad Smith]], announced that it had found evidence supporting elements of the reporting, including Azure storage consumption in the Netherlands and use of AI services, and had "ceased and disabled" specified subscriptions and services of a unit within the Israel Ministry of Defense.<ref>Brad Smith, [https://blogs.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2025/09/25/update-on-ongoing-microsoft-review/ Update on ongoing Microsoft review], ''Microsoft On the Issues'', 25 September 2025.</ref> The ''Guardian'' reported that Microsoft had told Israeli officials that Unit 8200 had violated its terms of service.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/sep/25/microsoft-blocks-israels-use-of-its-technology-in-mass-surveillance-of-palestinians Microsoft blocks Israel’s use of its technology in mass surveillance of Palestinians], ''The Guardian'', 25 September 2025.</ref> Microsoft's wider relationship with the Israeli military continued.<ref>[https://www.cnn.com/2025/09/25/tech/microsoft-israel-surveillance Microsoft terminates services for Israeli military after investigation into mass surveillance of Palestinians], ''CNN'', 25 September 2025.</ref>

==AI targeting in Gaza==
In November 2023 ''+972 Magazine'' and ''Local Call'' reported that the Israeli army was making extensive use of an AI system called '''Habsora''' ("The Gospel") that could "generate" targets almost automatically; a former intelligence officer said it facilitated a "mass assassination factory".<ref>Yuval Abraham, [https://www.972mag.com/mass-assassination-factory-israel-calculated-bombing-gaza/ ‘A mass assassination factory’: Inside Israel’s calculated bombing of Gaza], ''+972 Magazine'', 30 November 2023.</ref>

In April 2024 a further investigation revealed '''Lavender''', an AI-based programme that, according to six intelligence officers, played a central role in the bombing of Gaza; four said that at one stage early in the war it listed as many as 37,000 Palestinian men as linked to Hamas or Palestinian Islamic Jihad. The same reporting described a tracking system called '''"Where's Daddy?"''' used to signal when targeted individuals entered their family homes.<ref name="Lavender">Yuval Abraham, [https://www.972mag.com/lavender-ai-israeli-army-gaza ‘Lavender’: The AI machine directing Israel’s bombing spree in Gaza], ''+972 Magazine'', 3 April 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/03/israel-gaza-ai-database-hamas-airstrikes ‘The machine did it coldly’: Israel used AI to identify 37,000 Hamas targets], ''The Guardian'', 3 April 2024.</ref> The IDF described Lavender as a database used to cross-reference intelligence sources.<ref name="Lavender"/>

===''The Human-Machine Team''===
In 2021 a book titled ''The Human-Machine Team: How to Create Synergy Between Human and Artificial Intelligence That Will Revolutionize Our World'' was published under the pen name "Brigadier General Y.S.". It argued for a machine able to rapidly generate thousands of potential military targets, resolving what the author called a "human bottleneck". ''+972'' reported that five sources in 8200 confirmed the author was the unit's commander,<ref name="Lavender"/> and the ''Guardian'' identified him as Yossi Sariel.<ref name="GuardianSariel"/><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/09/digital-trail-identifying-israeli-spy-chief-has-been-online-for-years Digital trail identifying Israeli spy chief has been online for years], ''The Guardian'', 9 April 2024.</ref>

==Commanders==
Serving commanders are normally not named. The list below is compiled from published sources; where sources conflict or only a secondary compilation is available, this is noted. Several dates come from the Hebrew Wikipedia list of commanders<ref name="heWiki">[https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%97%D7%99%D7%93%D7%94_8200 יחידה 8200 – מפקדי היחידה], ''Hebrew Wikipedia'', accessed 16 October 2026. (Secondary compilation; used only where no better source was found.)</ref> and should be treated as provisional.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Commanders of Unit 8200 (and predecessor Unit 848)
! Unit !! Commander !! Dates of service !! Notes
|-
| Unit 848 || Col. [[Yoel Ben-Porat]] || 1972–1976 || Commanded during the 1973 Yom Kippur War.<ref>Ephraim Kahana, ''Historical Dictionary of Israeli Intelligence'', Scarecrow Press, 2006, p.43.</ref> Start and end dates per Hebrew Wikipedia list only.<ref name="heWiki"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || [[Reuven Yerdor]] (Yeredor) || c.1980–1984 || In post c.1982.<ref>Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel, America and the Bomb, Faber and Faber, 1993, p.293.</ref> 1980–84 per Hebrew Wikipedia list only.<ref name="heWiki"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || [[Elie Barr]] || 1987–1990 || <ref name="SpiesIncp76">Stacy Perman, ''Spies Inc. Business Innovation from Israel's Masters of Espionage'', Pearson Education, 2005, p.76.</ref>
|-
| Unit 8200 || [[Aharon Zeevi Farkash]] || 1990–1993 || Later head of [[Aman]].<ref name="SpiesIncp97">Stacy Perman, ''Spies Inc. Business Innovation from Israel's Masters of Espionage'', Pearson Education, 2005, p.97.</ref>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. [[Hanan Gefen]] (Geffen) || 1993–1997 || '''Uncertain.''' Dates per Hebrew Wikipedia list only;<ref name="heWiki"/> the previous version of this page placed him "post-2005", which conflicts with the documented tenures of Cohen and Harari. Described as a former commander in ''Forbes'', 2007.<ref name="Kerbs2007">Gil Kerbs, [http://www.forbes.com/2007/02/07/israel-military-unit-ventures-biz-cx_gk_0208israel.html The Unit], Forbes, 8 February 2007.</ref>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. [[Pinhas Buchris]] || 1997–2001 || Later Director-General of the Defence Ministry. Dates per Hebrew Wikipedia list.<ref name="heWiki"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. [[Yair Cohen]] || 2001–2005 || Served 33 years in the unit, the last five as commander.<ref name="ETH2019"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. [[Dani Harari]] || 2005–2009 || Previously deputy commander; succeeded in 2009 by his own deputy, Nadav Zafrir.<ref name="CtechZafrir">[https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/v53llperj Check Point's X-Factor: Can Nadav Zafrir wake the sleeping giant?], ''Ctech (Calcalist)''.</ref> 2005 start per Hebrew Wikipedia list.<ref name="heWiki"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || [[Nadav Zafrir]] || 2009–2013 || Later co-founder of Team8 and, from December 2024, CEO of [[Check Point Software Technologies|Check Point]].<ref>[https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/bywtlrroa Nadav Zafrir to replace Gil Shwed as CEO of Check Point], ''Ctech (Calcalist)'', July 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-37643758 How Israel builds its hi-tech start-ups], ''BBC News'', 2016.</ref> ''Globes'' gives 2005–2008, apparently conflating his period as deputy.<ref name="Globes2024">Assaf Gilead, [https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-check-point-names-nadav-zafrir-next-ceo-1001485073 Check Point names Nadav Zafrir next CEO], ''Globes'', 24 July 2024.</ref>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. [[Ehud Schneorson]] || 2013–2017 || '''Uncertain.''' Per Hebrew Wikipedia list only.<ref name="heWiki"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. [[Asaf Kochan]] (Assaf Kochan) || 2017–2021 || Described in March 2022 as having headed the unit "until last year".<ref>Meir Orbach, [https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/hywttoyg9 Outgoing 8200 commander: "Organizations don't know where their information is"], ''Ctech (Calcalist)'', 24 March 2022.</ref> 2017 start per Hebrew Wikipedia list.<ref name="heWiki"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. [[Yossi Sariel]] || February 2021 – 2025 || Announced resignation in September 2024 over the 7 October failures;<ref name="toi"/> remained until his successor took command in 2025.<ref name="jpost2"/>
|-
| Unit 8200 || Brig. Gen. "A" (name withheld) || 2025 – present || Assumed command in a ceremony at the unit's southern base.<ref name="n12"/><ref name="ynet"/> '''Date uncertain:''' Hebrew sources indicate early 2025 (March per Hebrew Wikipedia); the previous version of this page gave November 2025.
|}

==Tech sector alumni==
A ''Forbes'' article by Former Unit 8200 member [[Gil Kerbs]], stated that "Israel's high-tech world is "flooded" with Unit alumni, as entrepreneurs and company founders or junior and senior executives.":
::"Take [[Nice]], [[Comverse]] and [[Check Point]] for example, three of the largest high-tech companies, which were all directly influenced by 8200 technology," says [former Unit 8200 commander Hanan] Gefen. "Check Point was founded by Unit alumni. Comverse's main product, the Logger, is based on the Unit's technology. Look at [[Metacafe]], one of the hottest companies today. [[Eyal Herzog]], one of the founders, is also an 8200 alumnus and he accumulated a huge amount of relevant experience in the Unit."<ref name="Kerbs2007"/>

More than 1,000 companies are estimated to have been founded by Unit 8200 veterans; at least five publicly traded U.S. tech firms started by alumni are collectively valued at around $160 billion.<ref name="WSJ2024">Wall Street Journal, [https://www.wsj.com/tech/silicon-valleys-hot-talent-pipeline-is-an-israeli-army-unit-e8368b4d Silicon Valley’s Hot Talent Pipeline Is an Israeli Army Unit] ''Wall Street Journal'', 31 August 2024.</ref><ref name="Forbes2016">Forbes, [https://www.forbes.com/sites/richardbehar/2016/05/11/inside-israels-secret-startup-machine/ Inside Israel’s Secret Startup Machine] ''Forbes'', 11 May 2016.</ref>

Hundreds of alumni are employed by global tech giants. A 2022 ''MintPress News'' investigation based on public LinkedIn profiles identified at least 166 former members at Microsoft and 99 at Google;<ref name="MintPress2022">Alan MacLeod, [https://www.mintpressnews.com/revealed-the-former-israeli-spies-working-in-top-jobs-at-google-facebook-microsoft-and-amazon/282413/ Revealed: The Former Israeli Spies Working in Top Jobs at Google, Facebook, Microsoft and Amazon] ''MintPress News'', 31 October 2022.</ref> ''Drop Site News'' reported in 2025 that Microsoft alone employed roughly 250 veterans.<ref name="DropSite2025">Drop Site News, [https://www.dropsitenews.com/p/israel-technology-palo-alto-networks-microsoft-unit-8200 Hundreds of Former Israeli Spies Are Working in Big Tech] ''Drop Site News'', 13 August 2025.</ref>

Author [[James Bamford]] and former CIA officer [[Philip Giraldi]] have suggested that the role of Unit 8200 veterans in the telecommunications industry is a threat to US national security.<ref>Christopher Ketcham, [http://www.counterpunch.org/2009/03/12/israeli-spying-in-the-united-states/ Full-Spectrum Penetration: Israeli Spying in the United States], 12 March 2009.</ref>

A US diplomatic cable released by Wikileaks in 2011, highlighted the role of former Unit 8200 personnel in [[Hazard Threat Analysis]], Ltd. (HTA), a private company specializing in internet-based counter-terrorism (CT) intelligence gathering.<ref>[http://cablegatesearch.net/cable.php?id=08TELAVIV592&q=8200%20unit Private Israeli Company Collects Counter-terrorism Intelligence], Wikileaks, 1 September 2011.</ref>

===Selected founders and senior executives===
Only founders and senior executives publicly identified as Unit 8200 alumni in reliable sources are listed here.
*[[Gil Shwed]], [[Shlomo Kramer]] and [[Marius Nacht]]: founders of [[Check Point Software Technologies]] (1993), all of whom served in the unit.<ref name="Globes2024"/> In December 2024 Shwed handed the CEO role to former 8200 commander [[Nadav Zafrir]].
*[[Nir Zuk]]: founder of [[Palo Alto Networks]]; served in the unit before joining Check Point.<ref>[https://www.computerworld.com/article/1515006/how-i-got-here-nir-zuk-cto-palo-alto-networks.html How I Got Here: Nir Zuk, CTO, Palo Alto Networks], ''Computerworld''.</ref><ref name="DropSite2025"/>
*[[Assaf Rappaport]], [[Ami Luttwak]], [[Yinon Costica]] and [[Roy Reznik]]: founders of [[Wiz]], who served in Intelligence Corps Units 8200 and 81.<ref>Yarden Rozanski, [https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/sjfc118vn1e From IDF Intelligence to a $32B Google deal: The Wiz founders’ epic journey], ''Ctech (Calcalist)'', 18 March 2025.</ref> Google agreed to buy Wiz for $32 billion in March 2025 and completed the acquisition on 11 March 2026 after US and EU regulatory approval; Wiz now operates within Google Cloud under its own brand.<ref>Rebecca Bellan, [https://techcrunch.com/2026/03/11/google-completes-32b-acquisition-of-wiz/ Google wraps up $32B acquisition of cloud cybersecurity startup Wiz], ''TechCrunch'', 11 March 2026.</ref><ref>Google, [https://blog.google/innovation-and-ai/infrastructure-and-cloud/google-cloud/wiz-acquisition/ Google completes acquisition of Wiz], ''Google blog'', 11 March 2026.</ref>
*[[Eyal Herzog]]: co-founder of [[Metacafe]].<ref name="Kerbs2007"/>
*[[Guy Rosen]]: Vice President, Integrity, at [[Meta Platforms]].<ref name="MintPress2022"/>

==Controversies==
*'''Surveillance of Palestinians''': criticised by its own reservists in 2014 and, in 2025, by reporting on its storage of intercepted calls on Microsoft Azure, which led Microsoft to cut off some services. See [[#Surveillance of Palestinians|above]].
*'''AI targeting''': the unit's commander advocated automated target generation, and systems such as Lavender and the Gospel have been linked to mass civilian casualties in Gaza. See [[#AI targeting in Gaza|above]].
*'''7 October 2023''': intelligence failures leading to the resignation of commander Yossi Sariel.
*'''Sharing of US citizens' data''': the 2009 NSA–ISNU agreement allowed raw intercepts, potentially including Americans' communications, to be passed to Israel.<ref name="GreenwaldNSAISNU"/>
*'''Revolving door to the tech industry''': concerns about alumni in telecommunications and big tech. See [[#Tech sector alumni|above]].

==External Resources==
*Tobias Buck, [http://www.israeli-occupation.org/2011-12-01/tobias-buck-israels-army-of-tech-start-ups/ Israel's army of tech start-ups], FT.com, 30 November 2011, archived at Israeli Occupation Archive.
*Peter Beaumont [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/12/israeli-intelligence-reservists-refuse-serve-palestinian-territories Israeli intelligence veterans refuse to serve in Palestinian territories. Innocent people under military rule exposed to surveillance by Israel, say 43 ex-members of Unit 8200, including reservists] ''The Guardian'', Friday 12 September 2014 10.44 BST
*Center for Security Studies, ETH Zürich, [https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/Cyber-Reports-2019-12-Unit-8200.pdf Trend Analysis: The Israeli Unit 8200 – An OSINT-based study], December 2019.

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Israel]][[Category:Spooks]][[Category:IDF]] [[Category:Israeli intelligence]]

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{{short description|'''Three days of violence in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, in August 1991, after a car in the Lubavitcher Rebbe's motorcade killed Gavin Cato and a mob killed Yankel Rosenbaum; called a "riot", a "rebellion" or a "pogrom" depending on the speaker'''}}

{{Infobox
| bodystyle = float:right; clear:right; width:22em; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #aaa;
| title = Crown Heights riot (1991)
| image = 
| label1 = Date | data1 = 19–22 August 1991 (violence largely ended by 23 August)
| label2 = Place | data2 = Crown Heights, Brooklyn, New York City
| label3 = Trigger | data3 = Death of Gavin Cato (7), struck by a car in the motorcade of [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]]
| label4 = Deaths | data4 = Gavin Cato; Yankel Rosenbaum (stabbed); see also Bracha Estrin
| label5 = Injuries | data5 = "Over 150 police officers and at least thirty-eight civilians" (Girgenti Report)
| label6 = Official inquiry | data6 = [[Girgenti Report]] (July 1993), 2 vols
| label7 = Other names | data7 = Crown Heights riots; Crown Heights disturbances; Crown Heights pogrom; Crown Heights rebellion/uprising
}}
{{Chabad sidebar}}
The '''Crown Heights riot''' (also called the '''Crown Heights riots''', '''disturbances''', '''pogrom''' or '''rebellion''') was three days and nights of violence in the [[Crown Heights]] neighbourhood of [[Brooklyn]], New York, in August 1991. On the evening of 19 August a station wagon in the motorcade of the Lubavitcher Rebbe, [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], went through the intersection of Utica Avenue and President Street, was struck by another car and mounted the pavement, killing seven-year-old '''Gavin Cato''', the son of Guyanese immigrants, and badly injuring his cousin Angela.<ref name="GirgentiV1p4" /> Rumours that the [[Hatzolah]] ambulance had taken away the Hasidic driver while leaving the Black children to die "fueled the disturbance for three days", according to the New York State inquiry.<ref name="GirgentiV1p4" /> About three hours later '''Yankel Rosenbaum''', a 29-year-old Australian Jewish scholar, was stabbed by a group of young Black men and died. Over the following days roving groups attacked Jewish homes, people and cars, threw rocks and bottles at police, and looted shops; the state's [[Girgenti Report]] counted "over 150 police officers and at least thirty-eight civilians" injured and found that the city's response was "inadequate" until the fourth day.<ref name="GirgentiV1p10" /><ref name="GirgentiV1p206" />

What to call the events remains contested. Lubavitch Hasidim and many Jewish commentators call them a ''pogrom''; many Black residents and activists speak of a "riot" or "rebellion" against what they saw as police and state favouritism towards the Hasidim. The anthropologist [[Henry Goldschmidt]] argues that the two framings rest on different understandings of "race" and "religion" in the neighbourhood.<ref name="Goldschmidt38" /> The events damaged Mayor [[David Dinkins]], New York's first Black mayor, who lost the 1993 election to [[Rudolph Giuliani]], and the role of the Rev. [[Al Sharpton]], who gave the eulogy at Gavin Cato's funeral, has been argued over ever since.

== Background ==
=== Lubavitch and its neighbours ===
Crown Heights became the world headquarters of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] after [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] settled at 770 Eastern Parkway in 1940. In the 1960s, as most white Jewish residents left for the suburbs and the neighbourhood became predominantly Black and Afro-Caribbean, the Lubavitchers stayed. Goldschmidt writes that "the Lubavitch Hasidim, a tight-knit community of orthodox Jews, chose to stay in Crown Heights in the late 1960s when nearly all of their White Jewish neighbors chose to leave", and dates the decisive moment to "the spring of 1969, when the Lubavitcher Rebbe declared that his community would stay in Crown Heights as it became a predominantly Black neighborhood".<ref name="Goldschmidt5" /><ref name="Goldschmidt14" />

In the Chabad-side account published by [[Chabad.org]] for the 30th anniversary, the Rebbe told a gathering on the last day of Passover, 10 April 1969: "A phenomenon has recently spread among the Jewish people, like a plague, G‑d forbid, of abandoning Jewish neighborhoods".<ref name="Margolin" /> The same piece describes a meeting between the Rebbe and Mayor [[John Lindsay]] on 26 November 1968 at which Lindsay pledged support "for the Rebbe's stabilization efforts, including security and policing", and records that "during the 15 years preceding the 1991 riot, at least 10 members of the Crown Heights Jewish community were murdered".<ref name="Margolin" /> Goldschmidt notes that, following the Rebbe's 1969 call, the [[Crown Heights Jewish Community Council]] in the 1970s worked with Hasidic developers to form Chevra Machazikei Hashchuna, the Coalition to Strengthen the Neighborhood.<ref name="Goldschmidt105" />

=== Grievances and policing ===
The Girgenti Report summarised the background as "charges and counter charges of preferential treatment and inequity in City services, a 'double standard' in law enforcement, and an intense fear of crime and resentment of defensive actions against it". It added that "the conscious decision of the Lubavitchers to stay increased the competition for government-funded resources, especially for housing", sharpened by the creation of Community Board 9.<ref name="GirgentiV1p47" />

Black residents pointed to the 1978 death of Arthur Miller, "a prominent businessman and Crown Heights civic leader", who died "while struggling with police", and to the Hasidic anti-crime patrols, which "they maintain, are little more than a vigilante group set up to harass black men". In June 1978 "members of a Hasidic anti-crime patrol beat a sixteen-year old black youth and he fell into a coma", leading to a march of two thousand Black residents. Lubavitchers, for their part, said their appearance made them "inviting targets for robbery, bias crimes and other forms of anti-semitic harassment"; in January 1988 about 200 of them "'stormed' the 71st Precinct" to demand more protection.<ref name="GirgentiV1p46" />

The Black pastor and activist [[Herbert Daughtry]], in a partisan first-hand account, describes the police car stationed outside the Rebbe's home: "We complained bitterly that this was preferential treatment."<ref name="Daughtry206" /> He attributes the explosion of August 1991 to "years of built up rage derived from a double standard and preferential treatment accorded the Hasidim — which includes everything from immigration laws and services to special treatment by law enforcement".<ref name="Daughtry173" /> A [[BlackPast.org]] entry states that "black residents had voiced resentment that Jews had received special protections from law enforcement due to a police redistricting decision in 1976".<ref name="BlackPast" />

The Village Voice's Michael Kamber, writing in 2002, cited a 1984 Carnegie Corporation report describing the neighbourhood as "awash in a sea of ethnocentrism, prejudice, and violent conflict", and listed "the Jewish Defense League patrols accused of randomly harassing Black residents, the struggles over housing, the fight for control of federal poverty grants, and an epidemic of street crime".<ref name="Kamber" /> The Chabad.org account, by contrast, stresses blockbusting and violent crime against Jews, including the 1975 murder of Holocaust survivor Israel Turner, at whose funeral there were shouts of "Heil Hitler".<ref name="Margolin" />

=== The summer of 1991 ===
In the weeks before the riot the City College professor [[Leonard Jeffries]] had been widely criticised for remarks about Jews. In July 1991, according to a reference biography, "he gave a speech in Albany, New York, that many considered antiwhite and, especially, anti-Semitic"; CUNY later cut his term as department chairman, and a federal jury in 1993 found this had violated his First Amendment rights.<ref name="EBSCOJeffries" /> The [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL), in a 1992 advocacy report, quoted an ''[[Amsterdam News]]'' editorial of 17 August 1991, two days before the accident, warning of "the conflagration that will surely come should any kind of incident occur, by accident or design, that threatens the well-being of Professor Jeffries".<ref name="ADL2" /> [[Philip Gourevitch]], writing in the neoconservative ''[[Commentary]]'' in 1993, argued that "anti-Semitism was in the ether" and that Black newspapers including the ''Amsterdam News'' and the ''[[City Sun]]'' had defended Jeffries.<ref name="Gourevitch" />
The ''New York Times'' reported that in his Albany lecture of 20 July Jeffries spoke of "a conspiracy, planned and plotted and programmed out of Hollywood," by "people called Greenberg and Weisberg and Trigliani".<ref name="NYT1991Jeffries" /> Among those Gourevitch lists as having defended Jeffries that August was Sharpton.<ref name="Gourevitch" />



== 19 August 1991 ==
=== The death of Gavin Cato ===
According to the Girgenti Report, at about 8.20 pm "an Hasidic driver, part of a procession escorting the Lubavitcher Grand Rebbe, struck and killed seven-year-old Gavin Cato at President Street and Utica Avenue. Gavin's cousin Angela Cato was seriously injured. People on the street reacted by attacking the car's occupants."<ref name="GirgentiV1p4" /> The Rebbe was returning from visiting the grave of his father-in-law in Queens. Goldschmidt describes the sequence: "The police car and the Rebbe's car passed through the intersection of Utica and President without incident ... But the station-wagon entered the intersection through a red or yellow traffic light—depending who you ask—and was struck by a car heading north on Utica."<ref name="Goldschmidt42" /> The driver was Yosef Lifsh (also spelled Lifsch), a 22-year-old Israeli Lubavitcher.<ref name="JTA1991" />

Black and Jewish accounts dispute almost every detail. Goldschmidt records that "a number of witnesses claimed the car ... was hurtling down President Street at speeds up to 65 miles per hour", and some claimed Lifsh was drunk, whereas an accident reconstruction expert hired by his lawyers "estimated his speed at 30 to 35 miles per hour" and he and the police "vehemently denied the charge that he had been drinking".<ref name="Goldschmidt47" /><ref name="Goldschmidt52" /> At the time, Deputy Mayor Milton Mollen said the driver "was tested and found not to be intoxicated".<ref name="WaPo1991" /> For many Black residents, Goldschmidt writes, "the Rebbe's police escort—the patrol car leading the motorcade—[was] a clear sign of the 'preferential treatment' Lubavitchers have long been thought to receive from local police and other state agencies".<ref name="Goldschmidt48" />

=== Hatzolah and the ambulance dispute ===
==== What Hatzolah is ====
[[Hatzolah]] (Hatzoloh, Hatzalah) is a Jewish volunteer emergency medical service. The Girgenti Report describes it as "a privately funded, all-volunteer service started by the Hasidic community in New York City", adding that "some leaders in the black community maintain that the ambulance service caters exclusively to the Jewish community".<ref name="GirgentiV1p46" /><ref name="GirgentiV1p47" /> A 2015 trade-press profile records that "Hatzalah started in Williamsburg in 1965, after a prominent member of the Hasidic Jewish community had a heart attack and died while waiting for an ambulance to arrive", and that "Hasidic communities in other neighborhoods — like Crown Heights and Borough Park — frustrated by slow responses to 911 calls, began to copy the model". The service is free, and states that its mission is to "treat all in need, regardless of race, religion, or ethnicity", a claim some Black residents doubt: "I've never seen them pick up nobody of color," a resident of 39 years told the reporter. It is regulated like other volunteer ambulances, and in 2010 it received "a $445,000 grant from the New York State Assembly" for its dispatch system.<ref name="EMS1" /> Its all-male membership has also drawn criticism: in 2019 a regional council refused an ambulance to Ezras Nashim, an all-women Hasidic group in Borough Park, whose members said the board was "packed with sympathizers of Hatzolah", which had "forcefully opposed its female counterpart's right to exist"; a board member who voted against replied: "This has nothing to do with Hatzolah."<ref name="NYPost2019" /> The Chabad.org account traces the Crown Heights branch to the 1976 death of the community activist Samuel Schrage, after which his widow "spearheaded a campaign to purchase the first-ever ambulance for Crown Heights' nascent Hatzalah volunteer emergency medi[cal service]", following city paramedics who "came late and apparently under the influence of drugs or alcohol".<ref name="Margolin" /> Daughtry, a critic, records that Black residents objected to "the ambulance and the police car parked in front of the Lubavitcher headquarters and the home of the Grand Rebbe, respectively", and disputes that the ambulance was wholly privately funded: "part of the money came from the public".<ref name="Daughtry206" />

==== The ambulances that night ====
According to the Girgenti Report, Chaim (spelled "Chiam") Blachman, "an emergency medical technician for Hatzoloh, a voluntary Hasidic-run ambulance service", heard the call, and "within minutes of the accident, the Hatzoloh ambulance arrived". One of the first police officers on the scene said an unidentified Black man "was already giving Gavin Cato cardiopulmonary resuscitation" and that "the Hatzoloh ambulance was on the scene when he got there. It left moments late[r]".<ref name="GirgentiV1p56" /> The report's summary states: "The police ordered the Hasidic ambulance to carry away the car's Jewish occupants. This spurred a rumor that the Hasidic ambulance helped the Jews, and left the injured black children to die. That rumor, and others, fueled the disturbance for three days."<ref name="GirgentiV1p4" /> Goldschmidt writes that "the EMS paramedics treated the gravely injured Cato children on the spot, while the Hatzoloh paramedics brought the mildly injured driver and passengers to a nearby hospital", a "division of labor [that] fostered a widely shared, but hotly contested, perception that the Cato children and the Hasidim were given unequal medical care".<ref name="Goldschmidt43" />

==== The critics' case ====
For many Black residents the ambulance, more than the accident, was the grievance. A participant in the violence told Goldschmidt in 1998: "It was the disrespect of the Jewish ambulance coming along and totally disregarding two children lying under a car bleeding to death, and attending to the Jewish folks inside the car that had minimal damage. That's what created the whole scenario."<ref name="Goldschmidt49" /> The Rev. Heron Sam of St Mark's Episcopal Church told the playwright [[Anna Deavere Smith]]: "When the [Hatzoloh] ambulance came, they were more concerned to take care of their own than to worry about some boy—some Black boy—who lay dying on the street."<ref name="Goldschmidt49" /> The Girgenti Report found that this "widespread perception gave credence to the violence-inciting rumor".<ref name="GirgentiV1p47" /> A sign at the accident site, reported by the JTA, asked: "Where is the 'white' Jewish man who was taken away in the 'special' ambulance — unhandcuffed and escorted by the New York Police Department's finest?"<ref name="JTA1991" /> In his eulogy for Gavin Cato, as reprinted in the ''City Sun'' and quoted by Goldschmidt, Sharpton said: "It's an accident to allow an apartheid ambulance service in the middle of Crown Heights."<ref name="Goldschmidt50" /> Goldschmidt notes that Lubavitchers' neighbours "tend to see them as a privileged White minority operating an 'apartheid ambulance service'".<ref name="Slate2003" /><ref name="Goldschmidt53" />


==== The Hatzolah and Jewish response ====
The JTA reported Jewish residents' account that "the Hatzoloh driver was told by the police to 'take your guys and leave'", while the city ambulance crew treated the children.<ref name="JTA1991" /> Goldschmidt summarises the Hasidic position: the volunteers "arrived at the scene of the accident just moments—not minutes—before the EMS ambulances, and were explicitly instructed by the police to remove the injured Hasidim from the scene, out of a justified fear for their safety, and in an attempt to calm the angry crowd".<ref name="Goldschmidt52" /> Gourevitch, writing for ''Commentary'', likewise states that Lifsh "was set upon by angry black bystanders who beat and robbed him before the police could reach the scene" and that "police, seeking to remove the object of the crowd's anger, directed the crew to take away Lifsh and his passengers".<ref name="Gourevitch" /> The Lubavitch view, as Goldschmidt puts it, is that "the death of Gavin Cato was a tragic accident, and nothing more".<ref name="Goldschmidt52" />


=== The killing of Yankel Rosenbaum ===
About three hours after the accident, Yankel Rosenbaum, a 29-year-old doctoral student from Melbourne, was attacked a few blocks away. Volume II of the Girgenti Report states that "a group of young black men reportedly shouted, 'There's the Jew. Get the Jew.' Two of the stab wounds punctured Rosenbaum's lungs, causing him to bleed to death. The police apprehended a sixteen-year-old black man named Lemrick Nelson within moments of the crime."<ref name="GirgentiV2p3" /> Rosenbaum died at Kings County Hospital, where, the defence later argued, negligence had caused his death; the report devotes a section to "The Negligence of Kings County Hospital".<ref name="GirgentiV2p4" /> The JTA quoted Jewish community representatives stressing "that while both deaths both tragic, one was accidental and the other a deliberate murder".<ref name="JTA1991" />

== The three days of violence ==
The Girgenti Report describes "the most extensive racial unrest New York City has experienced in over twenty years".<ref name="GirgentiV1Letter" /> It records that "members of the Jewish community were harassed and assaulted as roving bands of black youths traveled through the neighborhood, sometimes shouting anti-semitic slurs. Rocks were thrown through windows and passing motorists were attacked. Several stores were looted and numerous cars were damaged."<ref name="GirgentiV1p33" /> It identified "twenty-seven bias crimes ... in the 71st Precinct, including twenty-one anti-semitic, three anti-black, and three anti-white incidents".<ref name="GirgentiV1p10" />

On Tuesday 20 August Sharpton and others led a march; on the way back, the report says, "there was another confrontation between blacks and Hasidim. Twelve police officers and a civilian were injured."<ref name="GirgentiV1p6" /> Accounts of who threw first differ. The report quotes an observer that the "crowd of teenagers pelted the Hasidim one more time. This time the Jews retaliated with a fusillade of projectiles", records Sharpton's recollection that "rocks flew, but he was unsure who started it", and notes that the ''Amsterdam News'' reported "a barrage of rocks from Hasidic store owners".<ref name="GirgentiV1p72" /> On Wednesday marchers again went to the Lubavitch headquarters at 770 Eastern Parkway. The report says the police "could not control the marchers, many of whom pelted the building with rocks and bottles and chanted anti-semitic slogans"; the marchers also "burned an Israeli flag".<ref name="GirgentiV1p7" /><ref name="GirgentiV1p14" />

The JTA reported on 22 August that the Crown Heights Jewish Community Council counted, for one night alone, "18 Hasidim injured, 50 Jewish-owned cars vandalized, a Lubavitch 'Mitzvah tank' destroyed and 60 Jewish homes damaged", and quoted Rabbi Shimon Hecht: "It was like Kristallnacht ... People were afraid for their lives."<ref name="JTA1991" /> Gourevitch reported signs reading "Hitler didn't do his job" and a rioter who told him: "Write this down. Jews are murderers. The black Hitler is coming this time."<ref name="Gourevitch" /> On 26 August a 68-year-old Holocaust survivor, Brokha (Bracha) Estrin, died after apparently jumping from her window; Rabbi Shmuel Butman said she "had told neighbors that the recent escalation in neighborhood tension had become too much for her".<ref name="WaPo1991" />

The columnist [[Jimmy Breslin]], who was beaten during the riot, later dismissed the scale of the events in an interview with the ''[[Village Voice]]'': "There was no pogrom, there was no riot ... How many stores looted? Seven, seven stores, that's all."<ref name="Kamber" />

=== Police and the mayor ===
Mayor [[David Dinkins]] did not visit Crown Heights on the Tuesday; "Deputy Mayor Lynch told us that the Mayor and his advisors felt his presence might exacerbate the disturbance".<ref name="GirgentiV1p67" /> On Wednesday, after visiting the Cato family, he was met with bottles and rocks.<ref name="GirgentiV1p7" /> The Police Department's approach for the first three days, the report found, "was one of restraint, predicated upon the desire not to make things worse. What it failed to do was provide a tactical response for ending the violence. On Thursday, the approach of the first three days was abandoned."<ref name="GirgentiV1p207" /> About 1,800 officers were deployed on Thursday 22 August and order was restored.<ref name="GirgentiV1p213" />

Jewish residents accused the city of deliberately holding the police back. Gourevitch quoted a police captain saying his officers were "flipping out" and that "a lot of them feel that they're paying the price for Rodney King".<ref name="Gourevitch" /> The Girgenti Report addressed the charge directly: "We found no evidence, direct or implicit, of an order by City Hall to restrain the police."<ref name="GirgentiV1p25" />

== The Girgenti Report ==
In July 1993 the state Director of Criminal Justice, Richard H. Girgenti, delivered a two-volume report to Governor [[Mario Cuomo]]. Volume I, on the city's response, concluded that Police Commissioner [[Lee Brown]] "did not meet these expectations and failed to fulfill his ultimate responsibility for managing the Department's activities to suppress rioting and preserve the public peace".<ref name="GirgentiV1p246" /> Of the mayor, it found that "the Mayor, as the City's Chief Executive, did not act in a timely and decisive manner in requiring the Police Department to meet his own stated objectives".<ref name="GirgentiV1p363" /> Volume II, on the Rosenbaum case, concluded that "it is most probable that Lemrick Nelson participated in the attack that resulted in Yankel Rosenbaum's death", but that "deficiencies in the initial investigation created problems with the evidence".<ref name="GirgentiV2p5" /><ref name="GirgentiV2p8" />

== The trials ==
On 29 October 1992 a Brooklyn jury acquitted Lemrick Nelson of all counts; the Girgenti Report records that "the public reaction to the verdict by many, especially in the Jewish community, was immediate and angered disbelief".<ref name="GirgentiV2p4" /> Goldschmidt summarises what followed: Nelson and Charles Price were convicted in federal court in February 1997 "of violating Yankel Rosenbaum's civil rights"; the convictions were overturned in January 2002 because the judge had "manipulated the jury selection process, in a well-intentioned but unconstitutional effort to ensure a racially balanced jury"; Price pleaded guilty in 2003, and at a third trial in May 2003 Nelson admitted the stabbing, but the jury found "that the stabbing did not actually cause Yankel Rosenbaum's death", and he was sentenced to ten years.<ref name="Goldschmidt58" />

A grand jury declined to indict Yosef Lifsh on 5 September 1991, "following two weeks of hearings and one hour of deliberations"; "Lifsch was on a plane hours later, returning home to Israel".<ref name="Goldschmidt57" /> In 2001 the city paid the Cato family $400,000. Writing for the ''Village Voice'' in 2002, Dasun Allah reported that "members of the Black community find it appalling that laws passed to protect Blacks from legal lynchings from all-White juries in the segregated South were used to convict a young Black man who had been acquitted by a racially diverse state jury", while "no one has been held accountable for the death of Gavin Cato".<ref name="DasunAllah" /> From the far left, the Socialist Workers Party weekly ''[[The Militant]]'' called the 2003 verdict a conviction "in frame-up", arguing that "the big-business press trumpeted the incident ... as an anti-Jewish riot" whereas "the outburst ... actually erupted in response to racist treatment of Black residents of that neighborhood by the cops and emergency personnel", and that using civil-rights statutes against Nelson "was a travesty of justice".<ref name="Militant2003" /> Goldschmidt observes that the verdicts "included something for everyone in Crown Heights—and something for everyone to be angry about".<ref name="Goldschmidt58" />

== Al Sharpton ==
The Rev. [[Al Sharpton]] arrived on the second day, by his own later account at the request of Gavin's father, Carmel Cato.<ref name="Sharpton2011" /> With Daughtry, [[Alton Maddox]], [[Sonny Carson]] and [[Colin Moore]] he met police at the 71st Precinct, where they "again demanded Lifsch's arrest".<ref name="GirgentiV1p70" /> The ADL, in its 1992 advocacy report, accused him of "polarizing relations and exacerbating tensions between Blacks and Jews" and quoted him in ''Newsday'' on 22 August: "This is no one-person thing. The emphasis is on Black survival in Crown Heights. Our people are under attack."<ref name="ADL20" />

=== The eulogy ===
Sharpton delivered the eulogy at Gavin Cato's funeral at St Anthony's Baptist Church on 26 August 1991. Two contemporary wire reports agree on its core. [[United Press International|UPI]] reported that he said: "They say they want peace. They don't want peace. They just want quiet", that the Black community would allow "no compromise, no sellout ... nothing less than the prosecution of the murderer of this young man", and that he attacked "Jews as 'diamond merchants'".<ref name="UPI1991" /> The [[Associated Press]] version, printed in the ''Washington Post'', has: "I hear the word 'peace' ... They don't want peace. They want quiet. If they want peace, look at the arrangements in Crown Heights and make it equal."<ref name="WaPo1991" /> At the same service Sonny Carson said of the rioters, according to the ADL, "You might not like this. But I'm very proud of them."<ref name="ADL18" />

A fuller text was printed in the Black weekly ''City Sun'' a few days later, under the title "Gavin's Death Must Spark a Beginning"; Goldschmidt quotes from that reprint: "The world will tell us [Gavin] was killed by accident. Yes, it was a social accident. It's an accident for one group of people to be treated better than another group of people. It's an accident to allow a minority to impose their will on a majority. It's an accident to allow an apartheid ambulance service in the middle of Crown Heights." He adds that Sharpton "then went on to criticize the Hasidic community in terms many observers considered antisemitic—for example by linking 'diamond merchants' in Crown Heights and Tel Aviv to the apartheid regime in South Africa".<ref name="Goldschmidt50" /> A longer version of the eulogy was also printed by Gourevitch in ''Commentary'' (1993) and in the same wording by ''[[Slate]]'' (2003), which quotes Sharpton as saying: "It's an accident to allow an apartheid ambulance service in the middle of Crown Heights. … Talk about how Oppenheimer in South Africa sends diamonds straight to Tel Aviv and deals with the diamond merchants right here in Crown Heights. The issue is not anti-Semitism; the issue is apartheid. … No compromise, no meetings, no kaffe klatsch, no skinnin' and grinnin'. Pay for your deeds."<ref name="Slate2003" /><ref name="Gourevitch" /> Neither of these two gives its source.



=== Later accounts ===
In a ''New York Daily News'' op-ed on 21 August 2011, a self-interested retrospective, Sharpton wrote that he had arrived "late in the evening the day after" and "did not know Yankel Rosenbaum had been killed by a mob on that first night". He said the "diamond merchants" remark referred to "the likes of the Oppenheimer family — which at the time was trading diamonds with apartheid South Africa", and that "Extremists seized upon that to say that I was calling all Jews diamond merchants, and I spent years defending the statement rather than recognizing that in hours of tension, one must be clearer than at any other time." He conceded: "Our language and tone sometimes exacerbated tensions and played to the extremists rather than raising the issue of the value of this young man whom we were so concerned about," and added: "I would still have stood up for Gavin Cato, but I would have also included in my utterances that there was no justification or excuse for violence or for the death of Yankel Rosenbaum."<ref name="Sharpton2011" />

The ''New York Jewish Week'' noted that his statement that he saw "brick-throwing on all sides" was "at odds with the contention of the chasidic community, that the violence was entirely directed at Jews".<ref name="Dickter2011" /> Rosenbaum's brother Norman said: "I don't hear the words 'I apologize' ... As far as I'm concerned it's just a cynical attempt to appease those who haven't forgotten the truth." [[Abraham Foxman]] of the ADL said Sharpton "comes close to doing the right thing" but "still hasn't come far enough to say 'I made a mistake, I acted in a bigoted way and I'm sorry'".<ref name="Dickter2011" /> Days earlier, withdrawing from a forum at the Hampton Synagogue, Sharpton had written: "I have made mistakes in my career, but the allegations around Crown Heights, which is proven to be patently untrue, was not one of them."<ref name="Dickter2011" /> In 2024 he told a sympathetic biographer: "Crown Heights happened in August 1991. I would have to be schizophrenic to do what they claim that I did."<ref name="Watson2024" />


=== Later rapprochement ===
In October 2001 Sharpton met Israel's consul-general in New York, Alon Pinkas; ''[[Haaretz]]'' called it "the first time Sharpton will meet an official Israeli representative".<ref name="Haaretz2001" /> He then made a three-day trip to Israel, organised with Rabbi [[Marc Schneier]] of the [[Foundation for Ethnic Understanding]] and accompanied by Rabbi [[Shmuley Boteach]]; Schneier called it "a significant step in the strengthening of black-Jewish relations", and Boteach said: "We have to move forward. We cannot be trapped in the past."<ref name="JTA2001a" /> The trip ended in controversy when Sharpton met [[Yasser Arafat]] in Gaza. Schneier, who had withdrawn as a chaperone, said: "If I were looking to reconcile with the Jewish community, my first overture would not be sitting down with Yasser Arafat."<ref name="JTA2001b" />

After antisemitic attacks in the New York area in December 2019, including the [[Monsey]] stabbing, Sharpton convened Black clergy with Schneier and said: "I am terribly disturbed by the recent anti-Semitic attacks on Jews, and particularly because they were perpetrated by members of the African-American community."<ref name="JTA2019" /> A 2013 NPR profile described him as having "gradually ... become the consummate insider", while the Brooklyn politician [[Dov Hikind]] complained that he had "been kosherized by a lot of people who I don't think would give many of us a second chance".<ref name="NPR2013" />

In June 2020 the ADL's chief executive, [[Jonathan Greenblatt]], appeared on Sharpton's MSNBC programme to promote a Facebook advertising boycott. This drew criticism from Jewish groups: Hikind asked why it was "OK to align yourself with Al Sharpton, a race-baiter and inciter of violence in the Crown Heights riots", and [[Morton Klein]] of the [[Zionist Organization of America]] said the ADL "should not align itself with Sharpton".<ref name="JNS2020" /> After the Hamas attack of 7 October 2023, Greenblatt told the ''[[Washington Monthly]]'' that "the first person to call me was Reverend Sharpton", who had driven a joint civil-rights statement condemning "this terrorist attack on Israel in which civilians have been targeted, killed, and kidnapped".<ref name="Watson2024" />

== Pogrom or rebellion? ==
Goldschmidt sets out the two framings: "Black Crown Heights residents viewed this violence as a 'riot'—or a 'rebellion'—triggered by Black frustration at White privilege, while Jewish Crown Heights residents viewed it as a 'pogrom' triggered by baseless Gentile hostility toward Jews."<ref name="Goldschmidt38" /> He argues that each side reinterprets the other's terms: "to deﬁne Blacks as Gentiles, criminals as Cossacks, and a riot as a pogrom", and, on the other side, "to deﬁne Jews as Whites, insularity as insult, and a pogrom as a riot".<ref name="Goldschmidt29" /> Rabbi Shmuel Butman, quoted by Goldschmidt, spoke of "a pogrom that we thought was only going to exist in books. Unfortunately we saw it right here, on the streets of Crown Heights", and Goldschmidt notes that "nearly all Lubavitchers in Crown Heights echo Rabbi Butman's assessment of a 'one side confrontation'".<ref name="Goldschmidt68" />

=== Jewish and conservative readings ===
For Gourevitch, "it was a riot not by victims of racism but by racists, an attack on Jews because they were Jews", and "in this respect, the event was unprecedented in American history".<ref name="Gourevitch" /> The ADL, an advocacy body, called it "the most dramatic, sustained and disturbing anti-Semitic outburst seen in the United States in many years".<ref name="ADL1" /> Chabad.org describes "three days of unrestrained antisemitic violence" and quotes the historian [[Edward S. Shapiro]] calling it "the most serious antisemitic incident in American history".<ref name="Margolin" />


=== Black, activist and left readings ===
Daughtry, a participant, rejected the Jewish framing: "to refer to the riots in Crown Heights as Khristelnacht and pogroms" risked "diminishing the importance of those dreadful experiences in Jewish history", since the events were "a narrowly confined, spontaneous eruption for several days in reaction to a traffic accident by people who feel, right or wrong, that they have been victims of years of a double standard".<ref name="Daughtry192" /> He wrote that "there was as much anger, if not more, directed toward the police as towards the Hasidim".<ref name="Daughtry173" /> The ''Village Voice'' in 2002 described "the four-day disturbance—an uprising, a riot, or a pogrom, depending on whom you talk to".<ref name="Kamber" /> A Black pastor quoted there asked: "They talk about the Black guys who started the riot, but they never talk about the Jewish driver who killed Gavin Cato."<ref name="Kamber" />

The ''City Sun'', a Brooklyn Black weekly founded in 1984, was the most combative Black paper of the period; the journalist Wayne Dawkins notes that its founder's news service had won a 1979 award "for its multipart series on black-Jewish racial tension in Crown Heights, nearly 15 years before the Brooklyn neighborhood became nationally known".<ref name="Dawkins" />




==== Fires in the Mirror ====
[[Anna Deavere Smith]]'s one-woman play ''Fires in the Mirror: Crown Heights, Brooklyn and Other Identities'' (1992; published 1993) is built from her interviews with Black, Lubavitch and other New Yorkers, performed verbatim; the words below are interview testimony as edited and arranged by Smith. The published text opens with a background note from the PBS ''American Playhouse'' production, which gives weight to both communities' grievances. It records that "Black leaders have charged that the Lubavitchers have enjoyed 'preferential treatment' in the community from police and other city agencies, including permission to close off major city streets during Jewish holidays", and that "Hasidic crime patrols, Blacks say, have indiscriminately targeted members of the Black community". It also records that "Lubavitchers point to the August fighting that included calls to 'Kill the Jews,' 'Get the Jews out,' and chants of 'Heil Hitler'", and that remarks about "Hasidic 'diamond merchants' and Jews as the 'devil leaders' of White people evoked old stereotypes".<ref name="SmithWGBH" /> The note adds that "many young Blacks who took to the streets in August 1991 were less interested in targeting Jews than in fighting the police, whom many in New York City's Black community regard as an occupying army", that police "arrested between 150 and 300 young Blacks as a 'preventive measure' in what witnesses described as indiscriminate 'sweeps'", and that "Black media reports generally presented the conflict as an anti-racist struggle and dismissed or trivialized charges of anti-Semitism. Jewish newspapers often blamed 'black agitators' and spoke of 'pogroms'".<ref name="SmithWGBH" />

The play's opening "identities" sequence sets everyday encounters beside the riot. In "Static", an anonymous Lubavitcher woman describes asking a Black neighbourhood boy to switch off a radio her baby had turned on during the Sabbath: "he says, 'You see this little button here / that says on and off? / Push that in / and that turns it off.' / ... and we laughed that he probably thought: / And people say Jewish people are really smart and they don't know / how to turn off their radios."<ref name="Smith5" /> Sharpton appears in the same sequence talking not about Crown Heights but about his hair and his surrogate father, James Brown: "James Brown raised me. ... I always wanted a father / and he filled that void."<ref name="Smith19" /> Goldschmidt draws on later parts of the play for Black testimony about the night of the accident, including the Rev. Heron Sam's remarks on the Hatzolah ambulance (Smith, p. 77).<ref name="Goldschmidt49" />


== Aftermath and the 1993 election ==
The Girgenti Report was published in July 1993, four months before the mayoral election. Kamber wrote that the riot "severely damaged the reputation of David Dinkins, the city's first African American mayor; sparked a white voter backlash; and was instrumental in Rudy Giuliani's defeat of Dinkins in the next election".<ref name="Kamber" /> BlackPast states that Giuliani's campaign accused Dinkins of having "enabled an ethnic 'pogrom' by allowing rioters to roam in the street".<ref name="BlackPast" /> Dinkins, speaking at the Jewish Theological Seminary after the Nelson verdict, rejected the charge: "There is not a single shred of evidence that I held the NYPD back—and there never will be."<ref name="Gourevitch" /> Three weeks after the riot he had called Rosenbaum's killing a "lynching".<ref name="Gourevitch" />

== The Rebbe's response ==

The Rebbe's motorcade was at the centre of the events, and Goldschmidt notes that the violence "cast doubt on the promise of America—a country the Rebbe had always called a 'land of loving kindness' for its just treatment of Jews".<ref name="Goldschmidt70" /> The Chabad.org retrospective of 2021 presents the riot as a test of the Rebbe's 1969 instruction not to leave: "The Jewish community still existed and was even growing, unlike the disappeared Jewish communities of Brooklyn's Brownsville, East New York, East Flatbush".<ref name="Margolin" />

== Memory and reconciliation ==
By 2002 the ''Village Voice'' found "a neighborhood largely indifferent" to the reversal of Nelson's conviction, and community organisations such as "Mothers to Mothers, Project CARE, and the Crown Heights Youth Collective" running dialogue projects, although "there is still little voluntary interaction between Blacks and Jews".<ref name="Kamber" /> Richard Green of the Crown Heights Youth Collective, an adviser to the Cato family, told Dasun Allah: "If the Hasidic community gets to buy a building, and we don't get together and buy that building, who's to be blamed for that?"<ref name="DasunAllah" /> Carmel Cato told the ''Daily Challenge'': "It's still not over ... I want Yosef Lifsh ... to face justice for killing my child."<ref name="DasunAllah" />

At the twentieth anniversary in 2011 the JTA reported Sharpton's partial admission of "mistakes".<ref name="JTA2011" /> Isaac Abraham, spokesman for the Rosenbaum family, had earlier objected to calls to move on: "Do you think the African American community would be silent if this happened in the African American community?"<ref name="Kamber" />

== See also ==
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]]
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Crown Heights Jewish Community Council]]
* [[Hatzolah]]
* [[Al Sharpton]]
* [[Black–Jewish relations in the United States]]

== Notes ==
<references>
<ref name="GirgentiV1Letter">Richard H. Girgenti, ''A Report to the Governor on the Disturbances in Crown Heights'', vol. I: ''An Assessment of the City's Preparedness and Response to Civil Disorder'' (Albany: New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, July 1993), covering letter to Governor Mario Cuomo. [https://nysl.ptfs.com/data/Library1/Library1/pdf/28598507_V1.pdf PDF] (New York State Library). Official report.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p4">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), Executive Summary, p. 4.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p6">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 6.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p7">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 7.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p10">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 10.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p14">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 14.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p25">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 25.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p33">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 33.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p46">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), ch. 2, p. 46.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p47">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), ch. 2, p. 47.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p56">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 56.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p67">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 67.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p70">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 70.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p72">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 72.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p206">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 206.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p207">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 207.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p213">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), p. 213.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p246">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), ch. 9, p. 246.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV1p363">Girgenti, vol. I (1993), ch. 13, Finding 36, p. 363.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV2p3">Richard H. Girgenti, ''A Report to the Governor on the Disturbances in Crown Heights'', vol. II: ''A Review of the Circumstances Surrounding the Death of Yankel Rosenbaum and the Resulting Prosecution'' (Albany: NYS DCJS, 1993), Executive Summary, p. 3. [https://nysl.ptfs.com/data/Library1/Library1/pdf/28598507_V2.pdf PDF]. Official report.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV2p4">Girgenti, vol. II (1993), p. 4.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV2p5">Girgenti, vol. II (1993), p. 5.</ref>
<ref name="GirgentiV2p8">Girgenti, vol. II (1993), p. 8.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt5">[[Henry Goldschmidt]], ''Race and Religion among the Chosen Peoples of Crown Heights'' (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006), ISBN 978-0-8135-3897-6, p. 5.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt14">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 14.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt29">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 29.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt38">Goldschmidt (2006), ch. 1, "Collisions", p. 38.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt42">Goldschmidt (2006), pp. 41–42.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt43">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 43.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt47">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 47.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt48">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 48.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt52">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 52.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt57">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 57.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt58">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 58.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt68">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 68.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt70">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 70.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt105">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 105.</ref>
<ref name="Daughtry173">[[Herbert Daughtry|Herbert D. Daughtry Sr.]], ''No Monopoly on Suffering: Blacks and Jews in Crown Heights (and Elsewhere)'' (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1997), ISBN 0-86543-586-3, p. 173. Partisan first-hand account by a Black activist participant.</ref>
<ref name="Daughtry192">Daughtry (1997), pp. 192–193. Partisan primary source.</ref>
<ref name="Daughtry206">Daughtry (1997), p. 206. Partisan primary source.</ref>
<ref name="Margolin">Dovid Margolin, [https://www.chabad.org/therebbe/article_cdo/aid/5221418 "Jews Don't Run: The Rebbe and Lessons From Crown Heights"], ''Chabad.org'', 19 August 2021, accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref>
<ref name="JTA1991">[https://www.jta.org/archive/fatal-brooklyn-traffic-accident-sparks-widespread-racial-violence "Fatal Brooklyn Traffic Accident Sparks Widespread Racial Violence"], ''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', 22 August 1991, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="UPI1991">Gary Rosenberger, [https://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/08/27/Hundreds-mourn-boy-whose-death-sparked-riots/3563683265600/ "Hundreds mourn boy whose death sparked riots"], ''United Press International'', 27 August 1991, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="WaPo1991">Associated Press, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/08/27/grief-anger-at-funeral-in-brooklyn/30cfa3f1-92f1-4739-9930-ae2da77d87e2/ "Grief, Anger at Funeral in Brooklyn: Dinkins Seeks Peace, Sharpton Asks Justice"], ''The Washington Post'', 27 August 1991, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="Gourevitch">[[Philip Gourevitch]], [https://www.commentary.org/articles/philip-gourevitch/the-crown-heights-riot-its-aftermath/ "The Crown Heights Riot & Its Aftermath"], ''Commentary'', January 1993, accessed 15 October 2026. Neoconservative opinion journal; polemical.</ref>
<ref name="Slate2003">William Saletan and Avi Zenilman, [https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2003/10/the-gaffes-of-al-sharpton.html "The gaffes of Al Sharpton"], ''Slate'', 7 October 2003, accessed 15 October 2026. Critical journalism; gives no source for the eulogy text.</ref>
<ref name="ADL1">[[Anti-Defamation League]], [https://phdn.org/antisem/noirs/The_Anti_Semitism_of_Black_Demagogues_and_Extremists-ADL-1992.pdf ''The Anti-Semitism of Black Demagogues and Extremists''] (New York: ADL, 1992), Introduction. Jewish advocacy organisation; partisan.</ref>
<ref name="ADL2">ADL (1992), p. 2.</ref>
<ref name="ADL18">ADL (1992), p. 18.</ref>
<ref name="ADL20">ADL (1992), p. 20.</ref>
<ref name="Kamber">Michael Kamber, [https://www.villagevoice.com/faded-rage/ "Faded Rage"], ''The Village Voice'', 15 January 2002, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="DasunAllah">Dasun Allah, [https://www.villagevoice.com/the-crown-heights-quiets/ "The Crown Heights Quiets"], ''The Village Voice'', 15 January 2002, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="Dawkins">Wayne Dawkins, [https://aalbc.com/articles/why-did-the-city-sun-19841996-matter "Why Did The City Sun [1984–1996] Matter?"], AALBC.com, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="BlackPast">Marshall Greenlaw, [https://blackpast.org/african-american-history/crown-heights-brooklyn-new-york-riot-1991/ "Crown Heights (Brooklyn) New York Riot, 1991"], ''BlackPast.org'', 27 November 2017, accessed 15 October 2026. Black-history reference site; student-written entry.</ref>
<ref name="Sharpton2011">Al Sharpton, op-ed, ''New York Daily News'', 21 August 2011, reprinted as [https://www.theyeshivaworld.com/news/editorial/100474/op-ed-by-al-sharpton-twenty-years-after-crown-heights-riots-killed-yankel-rosenbaum-hyd.html "Op-Ed By Al Sharpton Twenty Years After Crown Heights Riots"], ''The Yeshiva World'', 21 August 2011, accessed 15 October 2026. Sharpton's own retrospective; self-interested primary source.</ref>
<ref name="Dickter2011">Adam Dickter, [https://www.jta.org/2011/08/23/ny/sharpton-concedes-crown-heights-mistakes "Sharpton Concedes Crown Heights Mistakes"], ''New York Jewish Week'' (via JTA), 23 August 2011, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2011">Dan Klein, [https://www.jta.org/2011/08/22/united-states/al-sharpton-i-made-mistakes-during-crown-heights-riots "Al Sharpton: I made 'mistakes' during Crown Heights riots"], ''JTA'', 22 August 2011, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="Haaretz2001">Shlomo Shamir, [https://www.haaretz.com/2001-10-17/ty-article/al-sharpton-woos-israeli-and-jewish-officials/0000017f-ea09-d4a6-af7f-fecfc7e60000 "Al Sharpton Woos Israeli and Jewish Officials"], ''Haaretz'', 17 October 2001 (opening paragraph only; paywalled), accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2001a">[https://www.jta.org/archive/long-criticized-by-jews-sharpton-seeks-better-ties-with-trip-to-israel "Long Criticized by Jews, Sharpton Seeks Better Ties with Trip to Israel"], ''JTA'', October 2001, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2001b">[https://www.jta.org/archive/sharpton-under-fire-for-meeting-arafat "Sharpton under fire for meeting Arafat"], ''JTA'', late October 2001, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="JTA2019">Marcy Oster, [https://www.jta.org/quick-reads/al-sharpton-gathers-black-leaders-for-meeting-with-ny-rabbi-in-wake-of-monsey-attack "Al Sharpton gathers black leaders for meeting with NY rabbi in wake of Monsey attack"], ''JTA'', 30 December 2019, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="NPR2013">Corey Dade, [https://www.kvpr.org/2013-03-12/sharpton-2-0-from-outsider-to-insider "Sharpton 2.0: From Outsider To Insider"], NPR (via KVPR), 12 March 2013, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="JNS2020">Jackson Richman, [https://www.jns.org/antisemitism/adl-ceo-under-fire-for-partnering-with-sharpton-in-advocating-facebook-boycott "ADL CEO under fire for partnering with Sharpton in pushing for Facebook boycott"], ''JNS'', 2 July 2020, accessed 15 October 2026. Right-leaning Jewish news service.</ref>
<ref name="Watson2024">Jamal Watson, [https://washingtonmonthly.com/2024/01/16/al-sharpton-stands-up-for-israel/ "Al Sharpton Stands Up for Israel"], ''Washington Monthly'', 16 January 2024, accessed 15 October 2026. Commentary by Sharpton's biographer.</ref>
<ref name="EBSCOJeffries">"Leonard Jeffries, Jr.", [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/leonard-jeffries-jr ''EBSCO Research Starters''], accessed 15 October 2026. Tertiary reference.</ref>
<ref name="NYT1991Jeffries">[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/07/nyregion/city-college-professor-assailed-for-remarks-on-jews.html "City College Professor Assailed for Remarks on Jews"], ''The New York Times'', 7 August 1991, accessed 15 October 2026 (opening paragraphs).</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt49">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 49.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt53">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 53.</ref>
<ref name="EMS1">Antonia Farzan, [https://www.ems1.com/volunteer-rural-ems/articles/inside-brooklyns-orthodox-jewish-ambulance-corps-ZMbJE7BJCheh5qHS/ "Inside Brooklyn's Orthodox Jewish ambulance corps"], ''EMS1'' (from ''The Brooklyn Ink''), 21 November 2015, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="Goldschmidt50">Goldschmidt (2006), p. 50, quoting Sharpton's eulogy as reprinted in ''The City Sun'', 29 August–3 September 1991, p. 3 (Goldschmidt, n. 21).</ref>
<ref name="NYPost2019">Reuven Fenton, Lia Eustachewich and Tamar Lapin, [https://nypost.com/2019/11/20/all-women-hasidic-emt-group-denied-bid-for-ambulance-in-brooklyn/ "All-women Hasidic EMT group denied bid for ambulance in Brooklyn"], ''New York Post'', 20 November 2019, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref>
<ref name="Militant2003">Sam Manuel, [https://www.themilitant.com/2003/6718/671853.html "After third trial, Black man convicted in frame-up for 1991 Crown Heights killing"], ''The Militant'' (Socialist Workers Party), vol. 67, no. 18, 2 June 2003, accessed via the Internet Archive 15 October 2026. Partisan Trotskyist source.</ref>
<ref name="SmithWGBH">"The Crown Heights Conflict: Background Information" (© 1993 WGBH Educational Foundation, from educational materials for ''American Playhouse''), in [[Anna Deavere Smith]], ''Fires in the Mirror: Crown Heights, Brooklyn and Other Identities'' (New York: Anchor Books, 1993), pp. xliii–xliv.</ref>
<ref name="Smith5">Smith, ''Fires in the Mirror'' (1993), "Anonymous Lubavitcher Woman: Static", pp. 5–8. Interview testimony as edited by Smith.</ref>
<ref name="Smith19">Smith, ''Fires in the Mirror'' (1993), "The Reverend Al Sharpton: Me and James's Thing", p. 19. Interview testimony as edited by Smith.</ref>
</references>

== Further reading ==
* [[Edward S. Shapiro]], ''Crown Heights: Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot'' (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2006).
* [[Anna Deavere Smith]], ''Fires in the Mirror: Crown Heights, Brooklyn and Other Identities'' (New York: Anchor Books, 1993).
* [[Henry Goldschmidt]], ''Race and Religion among the Chosen Peoples of Crown Heights'' (Rutgers University Press, 2006).
* [[Herbert Daughtry]], ''No Monopoly on Suffering'' (Africa World Press, 1997).
* Brooklyn Historical Society, "Crown Heights Oral History – Bridging Eastern Parkway, 1993–1994", ArMs 1994.006.

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Crown Heights riot]]
[[Category:Chabad|Crown Heights riot]]
[[Category:Riots|Crown Heights]]
[[Category:Antisemitism|Crown Heights riot]]
[[Category:Racism|Crown Heights riot]]
[[Category:New York City|Crown Heights riot]]

Shmuel Schneersohn

2026-10-15T23:03:52Z

David:

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Fourth Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch (1834–1882), known as the Rebbe Maharash, youngest son of the Tzemach Tzedek, who led the movement from Lubavitch after the 1866 split and, according to Chabad accounts, lobbied Russian ministers during the pogroms'''}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Shmuel Schneersohn
| image = [[File:Grave of Shmuel Schneersohn (Rabbi Shmuel of Lubavitch or The Rebbe Maharash).jpg|250px]]
| caption = His grave in Lubavitch (public-domain photograph, Wikimedia Commons)
| other_names = The Rebbe Maharash; Shmuel of Lubavitch; Samuel Schneersohn
| birth_date = 2 Iyar 5594 (1834)
| birth_place = Lubavitch (Lyubavichi), Mogilev province, [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = 13 Tishrei 5643 (September 1882)
| death_place = Lubavitch, [[Russian Empire]]
| resting_place = Lubavitch, beside his father
| known_for = Fourth Rebbe of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]], 1866–1882; the saying "lechatchila ariber"; communal lobbying in St Petersburg and abroad (according to Chabad accounts)
| spouse = (1) a daughter of his brother Chaim Shneur Zalman (m. 1848, d. shortly after); (2) Rivkah, granddaughter of [[Dovber Schneuri]] (m. 1849, d. 1914)
| children = Schneur Zalman Aharon; [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]]; Avraham Sender; Menachem Mendel; Devorah Leah; Chaya Mushka
| parents = [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]] and Chaya Mushka
| predecessor = [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]] (the Tzemach Tzedek)
| successor = [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]] (the Rashab)
}}

'''Shmuel Schneersohn''' (1834–1882), known in Chabad by the acronym '''the Rebbe Maharash''' (''Moreinu ha-Rav Shmuel''), was the fourth leader of the [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] Hasidic dynasty. The youngest son of the third Rebbe, [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]], he took over the leadership in Lubavitch itself on his father's death in 1866, while several of his brothers set up rival Chabad courts in Kopys (Kopust), Liadi, Niezhyn and Ovruch. He wrote a large body of Hasidic discourses and is best known in Chabad today for the saying "lechatchila ariber" ("go over in the first place"). Chabad sources present him chiefly as a ''shtadlan'' (intercessor) who travelled to St Petersburg and Western Europe to lobby officials on behalf of Russian Jews, above all during the pogroms, which these sources date to 1879–82. Independent historians of the pogroms, notably [[I. Michael Aronson]] and [[John Klier]], find no state conspiracy behind them. The only non-Chabad trace of the Rebbe's activity at the time found so far is an unconfirmed police informer's report of 1882, cited by Klier, about fundraising in Vitebsk.<ref name="Aronson217" /><ref name="KlierRJP262" /> The historian [[Eli Rubin]] argues that his tenure was not a decline but a "false twilight" for Chabad.<ref name="Rubin381" /> He died in Lubavitch in 1882 aged 48, and was eventually succeeded by his son [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]].<ref name="YIVO">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/Shneerson_Family "Lubavitch Hasidism"], ''The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe'', accessed 15 October 2026.</ref><ref name="Loew213">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 213–214.</ref><ref name="ChabadMain">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/626953/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn (1834 - 1882)"], ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref>

== Early life ==
According to [[Shalom Dovber Levin]]'s Kehot history of Chabad in Tsarist Russia, he was born in Lubavitch on 2 Iyar 5594 (1834), and was "the only Rebbe who was born, lived all his days and also died in Lubavitch".<ref name="LevinCh80">[[Shalom Dovber Levin]], ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit – Perakim Nivcharim'' (History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia – selected chapters), 1770–1920, Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 2010 (5770), ISBN 978-0-8266-5327-7, ch. 80, printed p. קנט (159) [= PDF p. 169]; Chabad-side Kehot history. Translation from the Hebrew by the editor.</ref> Chabad.org calls him "the youngest of seven sons born to Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Lubavitch, the third Chabad Rebbe, known as the 'Tzemach Tzedek,' and Rebbetzin Chaya Mushka", and says that "by the age of seven he was proficient in large sections of the Talmud along with the commentaries".<ref name="ChabadMain" />


A timeline compiled by [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] and published by Kehot records that in 1848 he married a niece, the daughter of his brother Chaim Shneur Zalman, who "dies shortly thereafter", and in 1849 married Rivkah, a granddaughter of the second Rebbe, [[Dovber Schneuri]].<ref name="ChabadTimeline">Menachem Mendel Schneerson (comp.), [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/878638/jewish/A-Basic-Timeline-of-Rabbi-Shmuels-Life.htm "A Basic Timeline of Rabbi Shmuel's Life"], trans. Yitschak Meir Kagan, Kehot Publication Society, on ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref> Rivkah outlived him by more than thirty years, dying on 10 Shevat 5674 (1914); she was buried near him in Lubavitch.<ref name="LevinCh80b">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), ch. 80, printed p. קסא (161) [= PDF p. 171].</ref>

=== Early communal work ===
Chabad accounts date his public role to 1855, when at 21 his father asked him to take up communal work. His first task, according to the ''Challenge'' biography, was to attend "a conference called by the Russian Government to discuss the problems connected with the publication of textbooks with a German translation for use in the instruction of Jewish children", chaired by an assistant of the Minister of the Interior.<ref name="ChabadBrief">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/110466/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm "Rabbi Shmuel, the 'Rebbe Maharash' (1834-1882): A brief biography of the fourth Chabad Rebbe"] (from ''Challenge'', Lubavitch Foundation of Great Britain, 1973), ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref> The Kehot timeline lists a journey to Germany "to confer with communal leaders" in 1859; a journey to Kiev in 1863, on which he is said to have rescued "hundreds of families on the verge of being expelled from Volhynian villages"; and a journey to St Petersburg in 1865, where he "successfully lobbies to annul a decree submitted to the Senate limiting rights of Jews in Lithuania and Zamut".<ref name="ChabadTimeline" />


== Succession in 1866 and the split ==
Chabad.org says that a year before his death the Tzemach Tzedek asked Shmuel, then 32, to deliver Hasidic discourses publicly, "a practice normally reserved for Chabad Rebbes", and told his followers to "listen to him [Rabbi Shmuel] as you listen to me."<ref name="ChabadMain" /> After the Tzemach Tzedek died on 13 Nissan 5626 (March 1866), Levin writes, Shmuel "took upon himself the leadership of the Chabad movement in Lubavitch", while "his brothers, the holy rabbis, settled and opened Chabad centres in the towns of Kopust, Liadi, Niezhyn and Ovruch".<ref name="LevinCh80" />

Loewenthal's YIVO article describes the split from outside the movement's own tradition:
<blockquote>
After Menaḥem Mendel's death in 1866, several of his sons and grandsons became rival Hasidic leaders in the towns of Liady, Kopys, Niezhyn, and Ovruch... There was fierce conflict among the respective groups, although the incidence of interfamilial marriages between the offspring of these leaders suggests that the conflicts may have subsequently subsided, at least at the leadership level.
</blockquote>
He counts Shmuel's retention of his father's manuscript collection in Lubavitch as an important factor in his leadership.<ref name="YIVO" /> In ''Communicating the Infinite'' Loewenthal notes that a split at a generational transition recurs in Habad history, "in Habad we meet it again after R. Menahem Mendel, the Zemah Zedek, passed away in 1866", and that after the Tzemach Tzedek his sons led several branches of Habad, the differences between which still need research.<ref name="Loew137">Loewenthal, ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990), p. 137.</ref><ref name="Loew213" /> Of the rival lines, the Kopust branch, founded by his brother Yehuda Leib and continued by Yehuda Leib's son Shlomo Zalman, lasted longest.<ref name="YIVO" />
Outside Chabad's own literature, David Assaf and Gadi Sagiv note that "the claims that the will of the Tsemah Tsedek had been forged" accompanied the split, and refer readers to Ilia Lurie's history of Habad in the Russian Empire for details.<ref name="AssafSagiv">[[David Assaf]] and Gadi Sagiv, [https://www.tau.ac.il/~dassaf/articles/Assaf%20and%20Sagiv,%20Hasidism%20in%20Tsarist%20Russia,%20Jewish%20History.pdf "Hasidism in Tsarist Russia: Historical and Social Aspects"], ''Jewish History'' 27 (2013), pp. 241–269, n. 12 (p. 247); citing Ilia Lurie, ''Edah u-medinah: hasidut Habad ba-imperyah ha-rusit 1828–1882'' (Jerusalem, 2006), pp. 94–110.</ref>
A 2021 study by Eli Rubin, based on manuscript fragments of the Tzemach Tzedek's instructions, argues that "the Ẓemaḥ Ẓedek never issued a single and complete 'will' in the conventional sense" but declared his wishes "via a fragmented series of notes (tsetlekh)".<ref name="Rubin355">[[Eli Rubin]], [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0364009421000106 "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch ('Maharash,' 1834–1882) and the False Twilight of Chabad Hasidism"], ''AJS Review'' 45:2 (November 2021), pp. 348–381, doi:10.1017/S0364009421000106, p. 355.</ref> By 1865, he writes, the Tzemach Tzedek's sons in Lubavitch functioned "as a constellation of satellite courts", and "By 1865, it seems, the five sons shared jointly in the leadership", with his son Yehuda Leib (Maharil) acting as "his father's foremost proxy".<ref name="Rubin354">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 354.</ref> Rubin suggests that Shmuel's discourses of the winter before his father's death, which argued "against an acosmic interpretation of Chabad doctrine", "played a role in the controversy surrounding the question of succession".<ref name="Rubin355" /> In his reading, "if not for Maharash's ascendance, Maharil would have retained his status as the first among equals"; instead "Maharil left Lubavitch and established his court in Kopust, leaving Maharash, the youngest son, to fill his father's seat."<ref name="Rubin361">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 361.</ref>


=== The court in Lubavitch ===
The Lubavitch court burned down again in summer 1868. Levin describes how Shmuel, faced with his father's will forbidding his sons to live in his house, which was to become a school or study-house, wrote a responsum on whether he might rebuild on the site; in the end he bought more land to the east and built his home there. In 1872 he built a large hall, 30 by 30 cubits, on the site of his father's house, used for the High Holy Days and large gatherings, and a smaller prayer hall joined to his home.<ref name="LevinCh80" /><ref name="LevinCh80c">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), ch. 80, printed pp. קנט–קס (159–160) [= PDF pp. 169–170], citing his responsa in ''Igrot Kodesh Admur Maharash'', letters 41–42, and letters of the Rashab and the Rayatz.</ref> Levin's following chapters describe the manuscript and book collections that passed through his hands, including his own large collection of transcripts of earlier Rebbes' discourses.<ref name="LevinCh81">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), chs. 81–83, printed pp. קסב ff. (162 ff.) [= PDF pp. 172 ff.].</ref>

== Teaching ==
Loewenthal writes that Shmuel "likewise is noted for his activism and also for the profundity of his thought as an exponent of the mystical Hasidic teachings", and that he left a considerable library of discourses, published in chronological volumes.<ref name="Loew183">Loewenthal, ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990), p. 183.</ref><ref name="Loew213" /> Kehot has published them in the series ''Torat Shmuel'', arranged by year (for example ''Torat Shmuel 5626''); Chabad.org states that "Over twenty volumes of his works have thus far been published".<ref name="LevinCh81" /><ref name="ChabadMain" /> His best-known extended work is the discourse series ''Ve-kakhah'' (''Hemshekh Vekakhah ha-Gadol'') of 5637 (1877).<ref name="ChabadMain" />
Rubin disputes the claim made by the sociologist Samuel Heilman that Shmuel's creation of the post of ''mashpi'a'' (spiritual mentor) was "a reflection of his charismatic limitations". He argues that it testifies instead "to his vision for the perpetuation of the Chabad way of life and worship, and to the confidence with which he asserted his authority".<ref name="Rubin362">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), pp. 362–363.</ref> Citing government reports used by Ilia Lurie, Rubin writes that "Maharash became wealthy by investing in stock exchanges and other businesses, and that he kept a wine cellar", and that "he was the first Chabad rebbe to wear clothing cut in the European style".<ref name="Rubin364">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 364.</ref> He concludes that "independent testimonies do uphold the underlying claim that Maharash boldly embraced the economic and technological innovations of his time, engaged the world beyond Lubavitch, and carried his charisma and wit lightly."<ref name="Rubin365">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 365.</ref>

On the teaching, Rubin describes ''Hemshekh ve-kakhah ha-gadol'' as Shmuel's "best-known and most influential contribution": a series of discourses "whose initial installment was delivered in the spring of 1877, on the festival of Passover", "totaling forty-six discourses in all".<ref name="Rubin367">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 367.</ref> He finds that the discourses "are notable for the bold brevity with which he reconstrues and reconceptualizes theological concepts",<ref name="Rubin374">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 374.</ref> and that "the rhetoric of acosmism would be increasingly displaced" in later Chabad thought.<ref name="Rubin376">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 376.</ref> He concludes that "the presumption that he was merely the unremarkable heir to the waning vitality of his predecessors cannot be upheld", and that the period was "a false twilight, in which a new foundation was laid for the perpetuation and expansion of Chabad-Lubavitch as both an intellectual and activist movement in the century that followed."<ref name="Rubin381">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 381.</ref>


=== "Lechatchila ariber" ===
Chabad.org gives his best-known saying as: "The world says: If you can't go under [an obstacle], leap over; I say: In the first place, go over!"<ref name="ChabadMain" /> In Yiddish the key phrase is ''lechatchila ariber'', "over, in the first place". Chabadpedia, a Chabad wiki, gives the Yiddish as it appears in a letter of [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], who says he heard it from his father, the Rashab, who heard it from Shmuel: "Di velt zogt az men kon nit arunter, darf men ariber; un ikh halt az men darf lechatchila ariber."<ref name="Chabadpedia">[https://chabadpedia.com/Lechatchila_Ariber "Lechatchila Ariber"], ''Chabadpedia'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side community wiki; the underlying letter of the Rayatz has not been seen.</ref> The saying became a watchword in the seventh Rebbe's time; [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] used it in his letters, for instance to urge a sick correspondent to rejoice in advance of recovery.<ref name="ChabadAriber">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2718066/jewish/What-Does-Lchatchila-Ariber-Mean.htm "What Does L'chatchila Ariber Mean?"], ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref>


== Communal activism and the pogroms ==
Loewenthal describes Shmuel's "direct involvement in the Jewish community" as that of a latter-day ''shtadlan'', who travelled abroad to seek foreign help to protect Russian Jews.<ref name="Loew213" /> The ''Challenge'' biography says that in 1869 he "organized a permanent council of leaders of the St Petersburg Jewish community", whose task was "to be well-informed in all matters concerning the Jewish people and to be on constant guard to defend their interests and rights".<ref name="ChabadBrief" />

=== The 1879–82 pogroms ===
In the Chabad account, he went repeatedly to St Petersburg as anti-Jewish agitation grew and was assured by officials that it would be stopped, "but pogroms broke out again in 5640 (1880) in Kiev and Nieshin". Returning from abroad, he went to the capital and, "with the aid of Professor Bertenson, court physician to the Czar", obtained an audience with the Minister of the Interior. There he is said to have reproached the minister for breaking his word, and warned that foreign financiers were asking him how to respond. The ''Challenge'' account has the minister reply: "Rabbi of Lubavitch, do you dare to intimidate the Russian government with threats of the power of foreign capitalists? Are you threatening a revolution in this country?" Shmuel answered that "it is the negligent and weak conduct of the Imperial Government in the past that could now bring about a revolution in this country". He was then kept under house arrest at his hotel for two days, and on the third day the minister gave "a positive reply to his request".<ref name="ChabadBrief" /> The Kehot timeline sums this up as "1880: Successfully lobbies to halt pogroms."<ref name="ChabadTimeline" /> The story derives from the Rayatz's ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', in which the Rashab is quoted recounting it; that version names the intermediary as "Professor Josef Bertenson".<ref name="Toldot">[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', English translation, [https://www.sichos-in-english.org/books/sefer-hatoldos-admur-maharash/06.htm "For the Public Benefit"], ''Sichos in English'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side hagiographical memoir.</ref>

Historians date the wave of pogroms that began in the southern provinces to spring 1881, after the assassination of [[Alexander II]]. In August 1881, at the request of the Interior Minister Count [[Nikolai Ignatiev]], provincial commissions were set up in the Pale to investigate "Jewish economic harm"; they led to the restrictive "May Laws" of 1882. Russian Jewry's traditional leaders, centred on the Gintsburg family in St Petersburg, responded through lobbying and two meetings of communal representatives in the capital in August 1881 and early 1882.<ref name="KlierNP" />

'''A police report of 1882.''' The only non-Chabad trace found so far comes from a Russian police file. On the ''selihot'' fast and services held across the Pale in early 1882 (10 Shevat, 1 February 1882) in response to the pogroms, Klier writes: "Interestingly, given Vital's equation of the Habad tradition with political quietism, the Lubavitcher Rebbe made use of the occasion of the selihot service to impose a tax on the Jews of Vitebsk, reportedly to collect funds to bribe Ignatiev."<ref name="KlierRJP262">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', p. 262 and n. 29, citing GARF, f. 542, op. 1, d. 175 (1882), ll. 19–20ob (21/II/1882).</ref> [[Nikolai Ignatiev]] was Interior Minister from May 1881 to May 1882. Klier's source is an informer's claim. His footnote says that "The police file provides the name of the informer who made this claim, one Ber Abramovich Gittel'son. It would be interesting to establish the possibility that he was a maskilic or mitnagdic foe of the rebbe."<ref name="KlierRJP262" /> The report therefore concerns alleged fundraising in 1882 and does not confirm the ministerial lobbying described in Chabad accounts. Klier sets it within a wider point: "some orthodox religious leaders engaged in political activity that incorporated modern elements."<ref name="KlierRJP263">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', p. 263.</ref>

=== Other accounts of the 1881–82 pogroms ===
The Chabad narrative assumes that the pogroms were instigated "from Government circles"<ref name="ChabadBrief" />, a view widely held at the time. Three other bodies of writing see the period differently. They are set out here by viewpoint and weighed by the evidence each offers.

'''Revisionist archival scholarship.''' I. Michael Aronson's ''Troubled Waters'' (1990) set out to test "the idea that the pogroms were planned, which for the sake of convenience I call the conspiracy theory",<ref name="Aronson5">[[I. Michael Aronson]], ''Troubled Waters: The Origins of the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990), ISBN 978-0-8229-8525-9, p. 5.</ref> and concluded that "there was indeed no conspiracy behind the pogroms of 1881."<ref name="Aronson217">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 217.</ref> He traces the violence instead to popular rumour, including the belief that "the new tsar had issued an ukaz (a decree or edict) calling on the people to beat the Jews"; "The rioters were convinced they were acting out of loyalty to the regime."<ref name="Aronson228">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', pp. 228, 230.</ref> He also holds that the Judeophobe press "contributed a great deal to creating an environment conducive to pogroms."<ref name="Aronson230">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 230.</ref> Aronson records that "On 11 May 1881, Alexander III met with a delegation of Jewish notables."<ref name="Aronson193">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 193.</ref> Klier later wrote that Aronson "provided a definitive rejection of the myth that the pogroms of 1881 were organized, instigated, and spread by officials of the imperial government or by 'dark forces' close to them."<ref name="KlierRJPxv">[[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4, Foreword, p. xv.</ref>

[[John Klier]], working in post-Soviet archives, went further. His 2011 book states that "Contemporary research has dispelled the myth that Russian officials were responsible for instigating, permitting, or approving the pogroms."<ref name="KlierRJPxiv">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', Foreword, p. xiv.</ref> In an earlier essay he wrote:
<blockquote>
One of the most enduring myths of the pogroms of 1881–1882, of course, is that they were instigated, encouraged, or tolerated by the authorities – if not at the highest level, then at least at the local one. The strength of belief in this myth does not make it true. ... The research of I. Michael Aronson effectively disproves the claim that there was a conspiracy which underlay the pogroms. My work in post-communist archives supports my contention that the Russian government opposed pogroms at every level
</blockquote>
Klier adds that rioters were flogged, imprisoned and exiled, that "Local officials who were judged derelict of duty during pogroms lost their positions, and some were prosecuted", and that "as many rioters as Jews died in the pogroms of 1881–1882."<ref name="KlierNP">[[John Klier]], [https://jewishstudies.ceu.edu/sites/jewishstudies.ceu.edu/files/attachment/basicpage/70/02klier.pdf "New Politics for Old: A Reassessment of the Traditional Jewish Political Leadership in 1881–1882"], Central European University Jewish Studies (PDF), pp. 2–3, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref> Klier does not treat "Jewish exploitation" as an explanation he accepts. He treats it as the officials' own framework: the introduction to his book says that Russian views of Jews' shortcomings "were encapsulated in two slogans, 'religious fanaticism' and 'economic exploitation,'" and that the government "feared that the Jews were exploiting the unsophisticated and ignorant rural inhabitants, thus reducing them to a 'Jewish serfdom.'"<ref name="KlierRJP">[[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4, Introduction (essay and book cited separately); [https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/95484/excerpt/9780521895484_excerpt.pdf publisher's excerpt], accessed 15 October 2026.</ref> On this reading, Ignatiev's provincial commissions on "Jewish economic harm" and the May Laws of 1882 were the state's answer to the pogroms: restricting Jews rather than organising violence against them.<ref name="KlierNP" />


'''Israel Shahak (polemic).''' The Israeli chemist and civil-rights campaigner [[Israel Shahak]] wrote a polemical critique of rabbinic Judaism in which he places Jews in the old Polish lands as the agents of the landlords against the serfs. In ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' he writes that "in eastern Poland ... the Jews were both the immediate exploiters of the peasantry and virtually the only town-dwellers", and that Jewish autonomy was used "to justify the Jews' role in the oppression of the peasants in the service of the nobles".<ref name="Shahak75">[[Israel Shahak]], ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years'', new edition with a foreword by Ilan Pappe (London: Pluto Press, 2008; first published 1994), ISBN 978-0-7453-2840-9 (pbk), pp. 75–76. Polemic.</ref> On Russia he accepts that the state was involved but limits it: "The Tsarist government, acting surreptitiously through its secret police, did promote pogroms; but it did so only when it was particularly weak (after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 ...)".<ref name="Shahak78">Shahak, ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' (2008), p. 78. Polemic.</ref> With Norton Mezvinsky he argues that intra-Jewish violence before 1881 resembled "what were called 'pogroms' when committed by non-Jews against Jews", claiming that "Until 1881 in Russia, the number of riots by Jews against other Jews probably exceeded the number of pogroms by non-Jews against Jews", and that "The previously persecuted Hassids were the major and worst persecutors".<ref name="ShahakMez133">[[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'', new edition (London and Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2004; first published 1999), ISBN 0-7453-2090-2 (pbk), ch. 7, "The Religious Background of Rabin's Assassination", p. 133. Polemic.</ref> In the same chapter the authors go further than Shahak's earlier book, writing that "in 1881 the government instigated Russian and Ukrainian pogroms began".<ref name="ShahakMez134">Shahak and Mezvinsky, ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'' (2004), ch. 7, p. 134. Polemic.</ref> Neither book mentions Shmuel Schneersohn. Shahak's only discussion of Habad's history concerns the ''Tanya'', which he calls "fundamental book of the Habbad movement, one of the most important branches of Hassidism", and the seventh Rebbe; it has no bearing on the Maharash.<ref name="Shahak32">Shahak, ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' (2008), pp. 32–33. Polemic.</ref>


== Travels ==
Chabad.org says that "despite his frail health" he "traveled extensively throughout Europe, meeting with government and business leaders and lobbying them to exert pressure on the Czarist regime to halt its instigation of pogroms against its Jewish citizens", helped by "His fluency in languages such as Latin, French and Russian".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> The Kehot timeline records journeys to Germany (1859) and France (1868) "to confer with communal leaders".<ref name="ChabadTimeline" /> Loewenthal confirms the general picture of foreign journeys in search of help for Russian Jews.<ref name="Loew213" />


== Death and succession ==
He died in Lubavitch on 13 Tishrei 5643 (26 September 1882 Gregorian; 14 September Old Style) and was buried in the ''ohel'' built over his father's grave.<ref name="LevinCh80b" /> Chabad.org says that he "throughout his life suffered from many ailments" and died "at the young age of 48".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> His death was reported in the Hebrew newspaper ''[[Ha-Melitz]]'' of 10 October 1882.<ref name="Melitz">''Ha-Melitz'', 10 October 1882, p. 8 (death notice); a scan is held on [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shmuel_Schneersohn.png Wikimedia Commons] (public domain). The text of the notice has not been transcribed for this page.</ref>

Chabad.org says that he "was succeeded by his third son, Rabbi Shalom Dovber of Lubavitch".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> In fact the leadership stayed formally vacant for about eleven years: his son [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]] delivered discourses from 1882 but, according to Chabad sources, did not formally accept the leadership until 1893, in deference to his elder brother Schneur Zalman Aharon. That interregnum is covered on the page [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]].


== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)]]
* [[Dovber Schneuri]]
* [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]]
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]
* [[Kopust (Hasidic dynasty)]]
* [[History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia – Selected Chapters, 1770–1920]]

== Bibliography ==
* [[Shalom Dovber Levin]], ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit – Perakim Nivcharim, 1770–1920'', Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8266-5327-7. Chabad-side.
* [[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-226-49045-8.
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', Brooklyn: Kehot. Chabad-side hagiographical memoir.
* [[I. Michael Aronson]], ''Troubled Waters: The Origins of the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia'', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-8229-8525-9.
* [[Eli Rubin]], "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch ('Maharash,' 1834–1882) and the False Twilight of Chabad Hasidism", ''AJS Review'' 45:2 (2021), pp. 348–381, doi:10.1017/S0364009421000106.
* [[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4.
* [[David Assaf]] and Gadi Sagiv, "Hasidism in Tsarist Russia: Historical and Social Aspects", ''Jewish History'' 27 (2013), pp. 241–269.
* Ilia Lurie, ''Edah u-medinah: hasidut Habad ba-imperyah ha-rusit 1828–1882'', Jerusalem, 2006. (Not seen.)
* [[Israel Shahak]], ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years'', new edition, London: Pluto Press, 2008 (first published 1994), ISBN 978-0-7453-2840-9. Polemic.
* [[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'', new edition, London and Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2004 (first published 1999), ISBN 0-7453-2090-2. Polemic.
* ''Torat Shmuel'' (collected discourses), Brooklyn: Kehot, multiple volumes. Chabad-side.

== External links ==
* [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/626953/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm The Rebbe Maharash] – Chabad.org portal
* [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/Shneerson_Family Lubavitch Hasidism] – YIVO Encyclopedia

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Schneersohn, Shmuel]]
[[Category:Chabad|Schneersohn, Shmuel]]

Shmuel Schneersohn

2026-10-15T23:03:24Z

David:

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Fourth Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch (1834–1882), known as the Rebbe Maharash, youngest son of the Tzemach Tzedek, who led the movement from Lubavitch after the 1866 split and, according to Chabad accounts, lobbied Russian ministers during the pogroms'''}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Shmuel Schneersohn
| image = Grave of Shmuel Schneersohn (Rabbi Shmuel of Lubavitch or The Rebbe Maharash).jpg
| caption = His grave in Lubavitch (public-domain photograph, Wikimedia Commons)
| other_names = The Rebbe Maharash; Shmuel of Lubavitch; Samuel Schneersohn
| birth_date = 2 Iyar 5594 (1834)
| birth_place = Lubavitch (Lyubavichi), Mogilev province, [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = 13 Tishrei 5643 (September 1882)
| death_place = Lubavitch, [[Russian Empire]]
| resting_place = Lubavitch, beside his father
| known_for = Fourth Rebbe of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]], 1866–1882; the saying "lechatchila ariber"; communal lobbying in St Petersburg and abroad (according to Chabad accounts)
| spouse = (1) a daughter of his brother Chaim Shneur Zalman (m. 1848, d. shortly after); (2) Rivkah, granddaughter of [[Dovber Schneuri]] (m. 1849, d. 1914)
| children = Schneur Zalman Aharon; [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]]; Avraham Sender; Menachem Mendel; Devorah Leah; Chaya Mushka
| parents = [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]] and Chaya Mushka
| predecessor = [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]] (the Tzemach Tzedek)
| successor = [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]] (the Rashab)
}}

'''Shmuel Schneersohn''' (1834–1882), known in Chabad by the acronym '''the Rebbe Maharash''' (''Moreinu ha-Rav Shmuel''), was the fourth leader of the [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] Hasidic dynasty. The youngest son of the third Rebbe, [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]], he took over the leadership in Lubavitch itself on his father's death in 1866, while several of his brothers set up rival Chabad courts in Kopys (Kopust), Liadi, Niezhyn and Ovruch. He wrote a large body of Hasidic discourses and is best known in Chabad today for the saying "lechatchila ariber" ("go over in the first place"). Chabad sources present him chiefly as a ''shtadlan'' (intercessor) who travelled to St Petersburg and Western Europe to lobby officials on behalf of Russian Jews, above all during the pogroms, which these sources date to 1879–82. Independent historians of the pogroms, notably [[I. Michael Aronson]] and [[John Klier]], find no state conspiracy behind them. The only non-Chabad trace of the Rebbe's activity at the time found so far is an unconfirmed police informer's report of 1882, cited by Klier, about fundraising in Vitebsk.<ref name="Aronson217" /><ref name="KlierRJP262" /> The historian [[Eli Rubin]] argues that his tenure was not a decline but a "false twilight" for Chabad.<ref name="Rubin381" /> He died in Lubavitch in 1882 aged 48, and was eventually succeeded by his son [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]].<ref name="YIVO">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/Shneerson_Family "Lubavitch Hasidism"], ''The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe'', accessed 15 October 2026.</ref><ref name="Loew213">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 213–214.</ref><ref name="ChabadMain">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/626953/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn (1834 - 1882)"], ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref>

== Early life ==
According to [[Shalom Dovber Levin]]'s Kehot history of Chabad in Tsarist Russia, he was born in Lubavitch on 2 Iyar 5594 (1834), and was "the only Rebbe who was born, lived all his days and also died in Lubavitch".<ref name="LevinCh80">[[Shalom Dovber Levin]], ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit – Perakim Nivcharim'' (History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia – selected chapters), 1770–1920, Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 2010 (5770), ISBN 978-0-8266-5327-7, ch. 80, printed p. קנט (159) [= PDF p. 169]; Chabad-side Kehot history. Translation from the Hebrew by the editor.</ref> Chabad.org calls him "the youngest of seven sons born to Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Lubavitch, the third Chabad Rebbe, known as the 'Tzemach Tzedek,' and Rebbetzin Chaya Mushka", and says that "by the age of seven he was proficient in large sections of the Talmud along with the commentaries".<ref name="ChabadMain" />


A timeline compiled by [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] and published by Kehot records that in 1848 he married a niece, the daughter of his brother Chaim Shneur Zalman, who "dies shortly thereafter", and in 1849 married Rivkah, a granddaughter of the second Rebbe, [[Dovber Schneuri]].<ref name="ChabadTimeline">Menachem Mendel Schneerson (comp.), [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/878638/jewish/A-Basic-Timeline-of-Rabbi-Shmuels-Life.htm "A Basic Timeline of Rabbi Shmuel's Life"], trans. Yitschak Meir Kagan, Kehot Publication Society, on ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref> Rivkah outlived him by more than thirty years, dying on 10 Shevat 5674 (1914); she was buried near him in Lubavitch.<ref name="LevinCh80b">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), ch. 80, printed p. קסא (161) [= PDF p. 171].</ref>

=== Early communal work ===
Chabad accounts date his public role to 1855, when at 21 his father asked him to take up communal work. His first task, according to the ''Challenge'' biography, was to attend "a conference called by the Russian Government to discuss the problems connected with the publication of textbooks with a German translation for use in the instruction of Jewish children", chaired by an assistant of the Minister of the Interior.<ref name="ChabadBrief">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/110466/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm "Rabbi Shmuel, the 'Rebbe Maharash' (1834-1882): A brief biography of the fourth Chabad Rebbe"] (from ''Challenge'', Lubavitch Foundation of Great Britain, 1973), ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref> The Kehot timeline lists a journey to Germany "to confer with communal leaders" in 1859; a journey to Kiev in 1863, on which he is said to have rescued "hundreds of families on the verge of being expelled from Volhynian villages"; and a journey to St Petersburg in 1865, where he "successfully lobbies to annul a decree submitted to the Senate limiting rights of Jews in Lithuania and Zamut".<ref name="ChabadTimeline" />


== Succession in 1866 and the split ==
Chabad.org says that a year before his death the Tzemach Tzedek asked Shmuel, then 32, to deliver Hasidic discourses publicly, "a practice normally reserved for Chabad Rebbes", and told his followers to "listen to him [Rabbi Shmuel] as you listen to me."<ref name="ChabadMain" /> After the Tzemach Tzedek died on 13 Nissan 5626 (March 1866), Levin writes, Shmuel "took upon himself the leadership of the Chabad movement in Lubavitch", while "his brothers, the holy rabbis, settled and opened Chabad centres in the towns of Kopust, Liadi, Niezhyn and Ovruch".<ref name="LevinCh80" />

Loewenthal's YIVO article describes the split from outside the movement's own tradition:
<blockquote>
After Menaḥem Mendel's death in 1866, several of his sons and grandsons became rival Hasidic leaders in the towns of Liady, Kopys, Niezhyn, and Ovruch... There was fierce conflict among the respective groups, although the incidence of interfamilial marriages between the offspring of these leaders suggests that the conflicts may have subsequently subsided, at least at the leadership level.
</blockquote>
He counts Shmuel's retention of his father's manuscript collection in Lubavitch as an important factor in his leadership.<ref name="YIVO" /> In ''Communicating the Infinite'' Loewenthal notes that a split at a generational transition recurs in Habad history, "in Habad we meet it again after R. Menahem Mendel, the Zemah Zedek, passed away in 1866", and that after the Tzemach Tzedek his sons led several branches of Habad, the differences between which still need research.<ref name="Loew137">Loewenthal, ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990), p. 137.</ref><ref name="Loew213" /> Of the rival lines, the Kopust branch, founded by his brother Yehuda Leib and continued by Yehuda Leib's son Shlomo Zalman, lasted longest.<ref name="YIVO" />
Outside Chabad's own literature, David Assaf and Gadi Sagiv note that "the claims that the will of the Tsemah Tsedek had been forged" accompanied the split, and refer readers to Ilia Lurie's history of Habad in the Russian Empire for details.<ref name="AssafSagiv">[[David Assaf]] and Gadi Sagiv, [https://www.tau.ac.il/~dassaf/articles/Assaf%20and%20Sagiv,%20Hasidism%20in%20Tsarist%20Russia,%20Jewish%20History.pdf "Hasidism in Tsarist Russia: Historical and Social Aspects"], ''Jewish History'' 27 (2013), pp. 241–269, n. 12 (p. 247); citing Ilia Lurie, ''Edah u-medinah: hasidut Habad ba-imperyah ha-rusit 1828–1882'' (Jerusalem, 2006), pp. 94–110.</ref>
A 2021 study by Eli Rubin, based on manuscript fragments of the Tzemach Tzedek's instructions, argues that "the Ẓemaḥ Ẓedek never issued a single and complete 'will' in the conventional sense" but declared his wishes "via a fragmented series of notes (tsetlekh)".<ref name="Rubin355">[[Eli Rubin]], [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0364009421000106 "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch ('Maharash,' 1834–1882) and the False Twilight of Chabad Hasidism"], ''AJS Review'' 45:2 (November 2021), pp. 348–381, doi:10.1017/S0364009421000106, p. 355.</ref> By 1865, he writes, the Tzemach Tzedek's sons in Lubavitch functioned "as a constellation of satellite courts", and "By 1865, it seems, the five sons shared jointly in the leadership", with his son Yehuda Leib (Maharil) acting as "his father's foremost proxy".<ref name="Rubin354">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 354.</ref> Rubin suggests that Shmuel's discourses of the winter before his father's death, which argued "against an acosmic interpretation of Chabad doctrine", "played a role in the controversy surrounding the question of succession".<ref name="Rubin355" /> In his reading, "if not for Maharash's ascendance, Maharil would have retained his status as the first among equals"; instead "Maharil left Lubavitch and established his court in Kopust, leaving Maharash, the youngest son, to fill his father's seat."<ref name="Rubin361">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 361.</ref>


=== The court in Lubavitch ===
The Lubavitch court burned down again in summer 1868. Levin describes how Shmuel, faced with his father's will forbidding his sons to live in his house, which was to become a school or study-house, wrote a responsum on whether he might rebuild on the site; in the end he bought more land to the east and built his home there. In 1872 he built a large hall, 30 by 30 cubits, on the site of his father's house, used for the High Holy Days and large gatherings, and a smaller prayer hall joined to his home.<ref name="LevinCh80" /><ref name="LevinCh80c">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), ch. 80, printed pp. קנט–קס (159–160) [= PDF pp. 169–170], citing his responsa in ''Igrot Kodesh Admur Maharash'', letters 41–42, and letters of the Rashab and the Rayatz.</ref> Levin's following chapters describe the manuscript and book collections that passed through his hands, including his own large collection of transcripts of earlier Rebbes' discourses.<ref name="LevinCh81">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), chs. 81–83, printed pp. קסב ff. (162 ff.) [= PDF pp. 172 ff.].</ref>

== Teaching ==
Loewenthal writes that Shmuel "likewise is noted for his activism and also for the profundity of his thought as an exponent of the mystical Hasidic teachings", and that he left a considerable library of discourses, published in chronological volumes.<ref name="Loew183">Loewenthal, ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990), p. 183.</ref><ref name="Loew213" /> Kehot has published them in the series ''Torat Shmuel'', arranged by year (for example ''Torat Shmuel 5626''); Chabad.org states that "Over twenty volumes of his works have thus far been published".<ref name="LevinCh81" /><ref name="ChabadMain" /> His best-known extended work is the discourse series ''Ve-kakhah'' (''Hemshekh Vekakhah ha-Gadol'') of 5637 (1877).<ref name="ChabadMain" />
Rubin disputes the claim made by the sociologist Samuel Heilman that Shmuel's creation of the post of ''mashpi'a'' (spiritual mentor) was "a reflection of his charismatic limitations". He argues that it testifies instead "to his vision for the perpetuation of the Chabad way of life and worship, and to the confidence with which he asserted his authority".<ref name="Rubin362">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), pp. 362–363.</ref> Citing government reports used by Ilia Lurie, Rubin writes that "Maharash became wealthy by investing in stock exchanges and other businesses, and that he kept a wine cellar", and that "he was the first Chabad rebbe to wear clothing cut in the European style".<ref name="Rubin364">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 364.</ref> He concludes that "independent testimonies do uphold the underlying claim that Maharash boldly embraced the economic and technological innovations of his time, engaged the world beyond Lubavitch, and carried his charisma and wit lightly."<ref name="Rubin365">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 365.</ref>

On the teaching, Rubin describes ''Hemshekh ve-kakhah ha-gadol'' as Shmuel's "best-known and most influential contribution": a series of discourses "whose initial installment was delivered in the spring of 1877, on the festival of Passover", "totaling forty-six discourses in all".<ref name="Rubin367">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 367.</ref> He finds that the discourses "are notable for the bold brevity with which he reconstrues and reconceptualizes theological concepts",<ref name="Rubin374">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 374.</ref> and that "the rhetoric of acosmism would be increasingly displaced" in later Chabad thought.<ref name="Rubin376">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 376.</ref> He concludes that "the presumption that he was merely the unremarkable heir to the waning vitality of his predecessors cannot be upheld", and that the period was "a false twilight, in which a new foundation was laid for the perpetuation and expansion of Chabad-Lubavitch as both an intellectual and activist movement in the century that followed."<ref name="Rubin381">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 381.</ref>


=== "Lechatchila ariber" ===
Chabad.org gives his best-known saying as: "The world says: If you can't go under [an obstacle], leap over; I say: In the first place, go over!"<ref name="ChabadMain" /> In Yiddish the key phrase is ''lechatchila ariber'', "over, in the first place". Chabadpedia, a Chabad wiki, gives the Yiddish as it appears in a letter of [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], who says he heard it from his father, the Rashab, who heard it from Shmuel: "Di velt zogt az men kon nit arunter, darf men ariber; un ikh halt az men darf lechatchila ariber."<ref name="Chabadpedia">[https://chabadpedia.com/Lechatchila_Ariber "Lechatchila Ariber"], ''Chabadpedia'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side community wiki; the underlying letter of the Rayatz has not been seen.</ref> The saying became a watchword in the seventh Rebbe's time; [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] used it in his letters, for instance to urge a sick correspondent to rejoice in advance of recovery.<ref name="ChabadAriber">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2718066/jewish/What-Does-Lchatchila-Ariber-Mean.htm "What Does L'chatchila Ariber Mean?"], ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref>


== Communal activism and the pogroms ==
Loewenthal describes Shmuel's "direct involvement in the Jewish community" as that of a latter-day ''shtadlan'', who travelled abroad to seek foreign help to protect Russian Jews.<ref name="Loew213" /> The ''Challenge'' biography says that in 1869 he "organized a permanent council of leaders of the St Petersburg Jewish community", whose task was "to be well-informed in all matters concerning the Jewish people and to be on constant guard to defend their interests and rights".<ref name="ChabadBrief" />

=== The 1879–82 pogroms ===
In the Chabad account, he went repeatedly to St Petersburg as anti-Jewish agitation grew and was assured by officials that it would be stopped, "but pogroms broke out again in 5640 (1880) in Kiev and Nieshin". Returning from abroad, he went to the capital and, "with the aid of Professor Bertenson, court physician to the Czar", obtained an audience with the Minister of the Interior. There he is said to have reproached the minister for breaking his word, and warned that foreign financiers were asking him how to respond. The ''Challenge'' account has the minister reply: "Rabbi of Lubavitch, do you dare to intimidate the Russian government with threats of the power of foreign capitalists? Are you threatening a revolution in this country?" Shmuel answered that "it is the negligent and weak conduct of the Imperial Government in the past that could now bring about a revolution in this country". He was then kept under house arrest at his hotel for two days, and on the third day the minister gave "a positive reply to his request".<ref name="ChabadBrief" /> The Kehot timeline sums this up as "1880: Successfully lobbies to halt pogroms."<ref name="ChabadTimeline" /> The story derives from the Rayatz's ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', in which the Rashab is quoted recounting it; that version names the intermediary as "Professor Josef Bertenson".<ref name="Toldot">[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', English translation, [https://www.sichos-in-english.org/books/sefer-hatoldos-admur-maharash/06.htm "For the Public Benefit"], ''Sichos in English'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side hagiographical memoir.</ref>

Historians date the wave of pogroms that began in the southern provinces to spring 1881, after the assassination of [[Alexander II]]. In August 1881, at the request of the Interior Minister Count [[Nikolai Ignatiev]], provincial commissions were set up in the Pale to investigate "Jewish economic harm"; they led to the restrictive "May Laws" of 1882. Russian Jewry's traditional leaders, centred on the Gintsburg family in St Petersburg, responded through lobbying and two meetings of communal representatives in the capital in August 1881 and early 1882.<ref name="KlierNP" />

'''A police report of 1882.''' The only non-Chabad trace found so far comes from a Russian police file. On the ''selihot'' fast and services held across the Pale in early 1882 (10 Shevat, 1 February 1882) in response to the pogroms, Klier writes: "Interestingly, given Vital's equation of the Habad tradition with political quietism, the Lubavitcher Rebbe made use of the occasion of the selihot service to impose a tax on the Jews of Vitebsk, reportedly to collect funds to bribe Ignatiev."<ref name="KlierRJP262">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', p. 262 and n. 29, citing GARF, f. 542, op. 1, d. 175 (1882), ll. 19–20ob (21/II/1882).</ref> [[Nikolai Ignatiev]] was Interior Minister from May 1881 to May 1882. Klier's source is an informer's claim. His footnote says that "The police file provides the name of the informer who made this claim, one Ber Abramovich Gittel'son. It would be interesting to establish the possibility that he was a maskilic or mitnagdic foe of the rebbe."<ref name="KlierRJP262" /> The report therefore concerns alleged fundraising in 1882 and does not confirm the ministerial lobbying described in Chabad accounts. Klier sets it within a wider point: "some orthodox religious leaders engaged in political activity that incorporated modern elements."<ref name="KlierRJP263">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', p. 263.</ref>

=== Other accounts of the 1881–82 pogroms ===
The Chabad narrative assumes that the pogroms were instigated "from Government circles"<ref name="ChabadBrief" />, a view widely held at the time. Three other bodies of writing see the period differently. They are set out here by viewpoint and weighed by the evidence each offers.

'''Revisionist archival scholarship.''' I. Michael Aronson's ''Troubled Waters'' (1990) set out to test "the idea that the pogroms were planned, which for the sake of convenience I call the conspiracy theory",<ref name="Aronson5">[[I. Michael Aronson]], ''Troubled Waters: The Origins of the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990), ISBN 978-0-8229-8525-9, p. 5.</ref> and concluded that "there was indeed no conspiracy behind the pogroms of 1881."<ref name="Aronson217">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 217.</ref> He traces the violence instead to popular rumour, including the belief that "the new tsar had issued an ukaz (a decree or edict) calling on the people to beat the Jews"; "The rioters were convinced they were acting out of loyalty to the regime."<ref name="Aronson228">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', pp. 228, 230.</ref> He also holds that the Judeophobe press "contributed a great deal to creating an environment conducive to pogroms."<ref name="Aronson230">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 230.</ref> Aronson records that "On 11 May 1881, Alexander III met with a delegation of Jewish notables."<ref name="Aronson193">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 193.</ref> Klier later wrote that Aronson "provided a definitive rejection of the myth that the pogroms of 1881 were organized, instigated, and spread by officials of the imperial government or by 'dark forces' close to them."<ref name="KlierRJPxv">[[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4, Foreword, p. xv.</ref>

[[John Klier]], working in post-Soviet archives, went further. His 2011 book states that "Contemporary research has dispelled the myth that Russian officials were responsible for instigating, permitting, or approving the pogroms."<ref name="KlierRJPxiv">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', Foreword, p. xiv.</ref> In an earlier essay he wrote:
<blockquote>
One of the most enduring myths of the pogroms of 1881–1882, of course, is that they were instigated, encouraged, or tolerated by the authorities – if not at the highest level, then at least at the local one. The strength of belief in this myth does not make it true. ... The research of I. Michael Aronson effectively disproves the claim that there was a conspiracy which underlay the pogroms. My work in post-communist archives supports my contention that the Russian government opposed pogroms at every level
</blockquote>
Klier adds that rioters were flogged, imprisoned and exiled, that "Local officials who were judged derelict of duty during pogroms lost their positions, and some were prosecuted", and that "as many rioters as Jews died in the pogroms of 1881–1882."<ref name="KlierNP">[[John Klier]], [https://jewishstudies.ceu.edu/sites/jewishstudies.ceu.edu/files/attachment/basicpage/70/02klier.pdf "New Politics for Old: A Reassessment of the Traditional Jewish Political Leadership in 1881–1882"], Central European University Jewish Studies (PDF), pp. 2–3, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref> Klier does not treat "Jewish exploitation" as an explanation he accepts. He treats it as the officials' own framework: the introduction to his book says that Russian views of Jews' shortcomings "were encapsulated in two slogans, 'religious fanaticism' and 'economic exploitation,'" and that the government "feared that the Jews were exploiting the unsophisticated and ignorant rural inhabitants, thus reducing them to a 'Jewish serfdom.'"<ref name="KlierRJP">[[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4, Introduction (essay and book cited separately); [https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/95484/excerpt/9780521895484_excerpt.pdf publisher's excerpt], accessed 15 October 2026.</ref> On this reading, Ignatiev's provincial commissions on "Jewish economic harm" and the May Laws of 1882 were the state's answer to the pogroms: restricting Jews rather than organising violence against them.<ref name="KlierNP" />


'''Israel Shahak (polemic).''' The Israeli chemist and civil-rights campaigner [[Israel Shahak]] wrote a polemical critique of rabbinic Judaism in which he places Jews in the old Polish lands as the agents of the landlords against the serfs. In ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' he writes that "in eastern Poland ... the Jews were both the immediate exploiters of the peasantry and virtually the only town-dwellers", and that Jewish autonomy was used "to justify the Jews' role in the oppression of the peasants in the service of the nobles".<ref name="Shahak75">[[Israel Shahak]], ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years'', new edition with a foreword by Ilan Pappe (London: Pluto Press, 2008; first published 1994), ISBN 978-0-7453-2840-9 (pbk), pp. 75–76. Polemic.</ref> On Russia he accepts that the state was involved but limits it: "The Tsarist government, acting surreptitiously through its secret police, did promote pogroms; but it did so only when it was particularly weak (after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 ...)".<ref name="Shahak78">Shahak, ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' (2008), p. 78. Polemic.</ref> With Norton Mezvinsky he argues that intra-Jewish violence before 1881 resembled "what were called 'pogroms' when committed by non-Jews against Jews", claiming that "Until 1881 in Russia, the number of riots by Jews against other Jews probably exceeded the number of pogroms by non-Jews against Jews", and that "The previously persecuted Hassids were the major and worst persecutors".<ref name="ShahakMez133">[[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'', new edition (London and Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2004; first published 1999), ISBN 0-7453-2090-2 (pbk), ch. 7, "The Religious Background of Rabin's Assassination", p. 133. Polemic.</ref> In the same chapter the authors go further than Shahak's earlier book, writing that "in 1881 the government instigated Russian and Ukrainian pogroms began".<ref name="ShahakMez134">Shahak and Mezvinsky, ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'' (2004), ch. 7, p. 134. Polemic.</ref> Neither book mentions Shmuel Schneersohn. Shahak's only discussion of Habad's history concerns the ''Tanya'', which he calls "fundamental book of the Habbad movement, one of the most important branches of Hassidism", and the seventh Rebbe; it has no bearing on the Maharash.<ref name="Shahak32">Shahak, ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' (2008), pp. 32–33. Polemic.</ref>


== Travels ==
Chabad.org says that "despite his frail health" he "traveled extensively throughout Europe, meeting with government and business leaders and lobbying them to exert pressure on the Czarist regime to halt its instigation of pogroms against its Jewish citizens", helped by "His fluency in languages such as Latin, French and Russian".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> The Kehot timeline records journeys to Germany (1859) and France (1868) "to confer with communal leaders".<ref name="ChabadTimeline" /> Loewenthal confirms the general picture of foreign journeys in search of help for Russian Jews.<ref name="Loew213" />


== Death and succession ==
He died in Lubavitch on 13 Tishrei 5643 (26 September 1882 Gregorian; 14 September Old Style) and was buried in the ''ohel'' built over his father's grave.<ref name="LevinCh80b" /> Chabad.org says that he "throughout his life suffered from many ailments" and died "at the young age of 48".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> His death was reported in the Hebrew newspaper ''[[Ha-Melitz]]'' of 10 October 1882.<ref name="Melitz">''Ha-Melitz'', 10 October 1882, p. 8 (death notice); a scan is held on [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shmuel_Schneersohn.png Wikimedia Commons] (public domain). The text of the notice has not been transcribed for this page.</ref>

Chabad.org says that he "was succeeded by his third son, Rabbi Shalom Dovber of Lubavitch".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> In fact the leadership stayed formally vacant for about eleven years: his son [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]] delivered discourses from 1882 but, according to Chabad sources, did not formally accept the leadership until 1893, in deference to his elder brother Schneur Zalman Aharon. That interregnum is covered on the page [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]].


== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)]]
* [[Dovber Schneuri]]
* [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]]
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]
* [[Kopust (Hasidic dynasty)]]
* [[History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia – Selected Chapters, 1770–1920]]

== Bibliography ==
* [[Shalom Dovber Levin]], ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit – Perakim Nivcharim, 1770–1920'', Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8266-5327-7. Chabad-side.
* [[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-226-49045-8.
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', Brooklyn: Kehot. Chabad-side hagiographical memoir.
* [[I. Michael Aronson]], ''Troubled Waters: The Origins of the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia'', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-8229-8525-9.
* [[Eli Rubin]], "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch ('Maharash,' 1834–1882) and the False Twilight of Chabad Hasidism", ''AJS Review'' 45:2 (2021), pp. 348–381, doi:10.1017/S0364009421000106.
* [[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4.
* [[David Assaf]] and Gadi Sagiv, "Hasidism in Tsarist Russia: Historical and Social Aspects", ''Jewish History'' 27 (2013), pp. 241–269.
* Ilia Lurie, ''Edah u-medinah: hasidut Habad ba-imperyah ha-rusit 1828–1882'', Jerusalem, 2006. (Not seen.)
* [[Israel Shahak]], ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years'', new edition, London: Pluto Press, 2008 (first published 1994), ISBN 978-0-7453-2840-9. Polemic.
* [[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'', new edition, London and Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2004 (first published 1999), ISBN 0-7453-2090-2. Polemic.
* ''Torat Shmuel'' (collected discourses), Brooklyn: Kehot, multiple volumes. Chabad-side.

== External links ==
* [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/626953/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm The Rebbe Maharash] – Chabad.org portal
* [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/Shneerson_Family Lubavitch Hasidism] – YIVO Encyclopedia

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Schneersohn, Shmuel]]
[[Category:Chabad|Schneersohn, Shmuel]]

Shmuel Schneersohn

2026-10-15T23:03:02Z

David:

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Fourth Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch (1834–1882), known as the Rebbe Maharash, youngest son of the Tzemach Tzedek, who led the movement from Lubavitch after the 1866 split and, according to Chabad accounts, lobbied Russian ministers during the pogroms'''}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Shmuel Schneersohn
| logo = [[File:Grave of Shmuel Schneersohn (Rabbi Shmuel of Lubavitch or The Rebbe Maharash).jpg|250px]]
| caption = His grave in Lubavitch (public-domain photograph, Wikimedia Commons)
| other_names = The Rebbe Maharash; Shmuel of Lubavitch; Samuel Schneersohn
| birth_date = 2 Iyar 5594 (1834)
| birth_place = Lubavitch (Lyubavichi), Mogilev province, [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = 13 Tishrei 5643 (September 1882)
| death_place = Lubavitch, [[Russian Empire]]
| resting_place = Lubavitch, beside his father
| known_for = Fourth Rebbe of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]], 1866–1882; the saying "lechatchila ariber"; communal lobbying in St Petersburg and abroad (according to Chabad accounts)
| spouse = (1) a daughter of his brother Chaim Shneur Zalman (m. 1848, d. shortly after); (2) Rivkah, granddaughter of [[Dovber Schneuri]] (m. 1849, d. 1914)
| children = Schneur Zalman Aharon; [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]]; Avraham Sender; Menachem Mendel; Devorah Leah; Chaya Mushka
| parents = [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]] and Chaya Mushka
| predecessor = [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]] (the Tzemach Tzedek)
| successor = [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]] (the Rashab)
}}

'''Shmuel Schneersohn''' (1834–1882), known in Chabad by the acronym '''the Rebbe Maharash''' (''Moreinu ha-Rav Shmuel''), was the fourth leader of the [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] Hasidic dynasty. The youngest son of the third Rebbe, [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel Schneersohn]], he took over the leadership in Lubavitch itself on his father's death in 1866, while several of his brothers set up rival Chabad courts in Kopys (Kopust), Liadi, Niezhyn and Ovruch. He wrote a large body of Hasidic discourses and is best known in Chabad today for the saying "lechatchila ariber" ("go over in the first place"). Chabad sources present him chiefly as a ''shtadlan'' (intercessor) who travelled to St Petersburg and Western Europe to lobby officials on behalf of Russian Jews, above all during the pogroms, which these sources date to 1879–82. Independent historians of the pogroms, notably [[I. Michael Aronson]] and [[John Klier]], find no state conspiracy behind them. The only non-Chabad trace of the Rebbe's activity at the time found so far is an unconfirmed police informer's report of 1882, cited by Klier, about fundraising in Vitebsk.<ref name="Aronson217" /><ref name="KlierRJP262" /> The historian [[Eli Rubin]] argues that his tenure was not a decline but a "false twilight" for Chabad.<ref name="Rubin381" /> He died in Lubavitch in 1882 aged 48, and was eventually succeeded by his son [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]].<ref name="YIVO">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/Shneerson_Family "Lubavitch Hasidism"], ''The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe'', accessed 15 October 2026.</ref><ref name="Loew213">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 213–214.</ref><ref name="ChabadMain">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/626953/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn (1834 - 1882)"], ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref>

== Early life ==
According to [[Shalom Dovber Levin]]'s Kehot history of Chabad in Tsarist Russia, he was born in Lubavitch on 2 Iyar 5594 (1834), and was "the only Rebbe who was born, lived all his days and also died in Lubavitch".<ref name="LevinCh80">[[Shalom Dovber Levin]], ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit – Perakim Nivcharim'' (History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia – selected chapters), 1770–1920, Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 2010 (5770), ISBN 978-0-8266-5327-7, ch. 80, printed p. קנט (159) [= PDF p. 169]; Chabad-side Kehot history. Translation from the Hebrew by the editor.</ref> Chabad.org calls him "the youngest of seven sons born to Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Lubavitch, the third Chabad Rebbe, known as the 'Tzemach Tzedek,' and Rebbetzin Chaya Mushka", and says that "by the age of seven he was proficient in large sections of the Talmud along with the commentaries".<ref name="ChabadMain" />


A timeline compiled by [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] and published by Kehot records that in 1848 he married a niece, the daughter of his brother Chaim Shneur Zalman, who "dies shortly thereafter", and in 1849 married Rivkah, a granddaughter of the second Rebbe, [[Dovber Schneuri]].<ref name="ChabadTimeline">Menachem Mendel Schneerson (comp.), [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/878638/jewish/A-Basic-Timeline-of-Rabbi-Shmuels-Life.htm "A Basic Timeline of Rabbi Shmuel's Life"], trans. Yitschak Meir Kagan, Kehot Publication Society, on ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref> Rivkah outlived him by more than thirty years, dying on 10 Shevat 5674 (1914); she was buried near him in Lubavitch.<ref name="LevinCh80b">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), ch. 80, printed p. קסא (161) [= PDF p. 171].</ref>

=== Early communal work ===
Chabad accounts date his public role to 1855, when at 21 his father asked him to take up communal work. His first task, according to the ''Challenge'' biography, was to attend "a conference called by the Russian Government to discuss the problems connected with the publication of textbooks with a German translation for use in the instruction of Jewish children", chaired by an assistant of the Minister of the Interior.<ref name="ChabadBrief">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/110466/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm "Rabbi Shmuel, the 'Rebbe Maharash' (1834-1882): A brief biography of the fourth Chabad Rebbe"] (from ''Challenge'', Lubavitch Foundation of Great Britain, 1973), ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref> The Kehot timeline lists a journey to Germany "to confer with communal leaders" in 1859; a journey to Kiev in 1863, on which he is said to have rescued "hundreds of families on the verge of being expelled from Volhynian villages"; and a journey to St Petersburg in 1865, where he "successfully lobbies to annul a decree submitted to the Senate limiting rights of Jews in Lithuania and Zamut".<ref name="ChabadTimeline" />


== Succession in 1866 and the split ==
Chabad.org says that a year before his death the Tzemach Tzedek asked Shmuel, then 32, to deliver Hasidic discourses publicly, "a practice normally reserved for Chabad Rebbes", and told his followers to "listen to him [Rabbi Shmuel] as you listen to me."<ref name="ChabadMain" /> After the Tzemach Tzedek died on 13 Nissan 5626 (March 1866), Levin writes, Shmuel "took upon himself the leadership of the Chabad movement in Lubavitch", while "his brothers, the holy rabbis, settled and opened Chabad centres in the towns of Kopust, Liadi, Niezhyn and Ovruch".<ref name="LevinCh80" />

Loewenthal's YIVO article describes the split from outside the movement's own tradition:
<blockquote>
After Menaḥem Mendel's death in 1866, several of his sons and grandsons became rival Hasidic leaders in the towns of Liady, Kopys, Niezhyn, and Ovruch... There was fierce conflict among the respective groups, although the incidence of interfamilial marriages between the offspring of these leaders suggests that the conflicts may have subsequently subsided, at least at the leadership level.
</blockquote>
He counts Shmuel's retention of his father's manuscript collection in Lubavitch as an important factor in his leadership.<ref name="YIVO" /> In ''Communicating the Infinite'' Loewenthal notes that a split at a generational transition recurs in Habad history, "in Habad we meet it again after R. Menahem Mendel, the Zemah Zedek, passed away in 1866", and that after the Tzemach Tzedek his sons led several branches of Habad, the differences between which still need research.<ref name="Loew137">Loewenthal, ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990), p. 137.</ref><ref name="Loew213" /> Of the rival lines, the Kopust branch, founded by his brother Yehuda Leib and continued by Yehuda Leib's son Shlomo Zalman, lasted longest.<ref name="YIVO" />
Outside Chabad's own literature, David Assaf and Gadi Sagiv note that "the claims that the will of the Tsemah Tsedek had been forged" accompanied the split, and refer readers to Ilia Lurie's history of Habad in the Russian Empire for details.<ref name="AssafSagiv">[[David Assaf]] and Gadi Sagiv, [https://www.tau.ac.il/~dassaf/articles/Assaf%20and%20Sagiv,%20Hasidism%20in%20Tsarist%20Russia,%20Jewish%20History.pdf "Hasidism in Tsarist Russia: Historical and Social Aspects"], ''Jewish History'' 27 (2013), pp. 241–269, n. 12 (p. 247); citing Ilia Lurie, ''Edah u-medinah: hasidut Habad ba-imperyah ha-rusit 1828–1882'' (Jerusalem, 2006), pp. 94–110.</ref>
A 2021 study by Eli Rubin, based on manuscript fragments of the Tzemach Tzedek's instructions, argues that "the Ẓemaḥ Ẓedek never issued a single and complete 'will' in the conventional sense" but declared his wishes "via a fragmented series of notes (tsetlekh)".<ref name="Rubin355">[[Eli Rubin]], [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0364009421000106 "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch ('Maharash,' 1834–1882) and the False Twilight of Chabad Hasidism"], ''AJS Review'' 45:2 (November 2021), pp. 348–381, doi:10.1017/S0364009421000106, p. 355.</ref> By 1865, he writes, the Tzemach Tzedek's sons in Lubavitch functioned "as a constellation of satellite courts", and "By 1865, it seems, the five sons shared jointly in the leadership", with his son Yehuda Leib (Maharil) acting as "his father's foremost proxy".<ref name="Rubin354">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 354.</ref> Rubin suggests that Shmuel's discourses of the winter before his father's death, which argued "against an acosmic interpretation of Chabad doctrine", "played a role in the controversy surrounding the question of succession".<ref name="Rubin355" /> In his reading, "if not for Maharash's ascendance, Maharil would have retained his status as the first among equals"; instead "Maharil left Lubavitch and established his court in Kopust, leaving Maharash, the youngest son, to fill his father's seat."<ref name="Rubin361">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 361.</ref>


=== The court in Lubavitch ===
The Lubavitch court burned down again in summer 1868. Levin describes how Shmuel, faced with his father's will forbidding his sons to live in his house, which was to become a school or study-house, wrote a responsum on whether he might rebuild on the site; in the end he bought more land to the east and built his home there. In 1872 he built a large hall, 30 by 30 cubits, on the site of his father's house, used for the High Holy Days and large gatherings, and a smaller prayer hall joined to his home.<ref name="LevinCh80" /><ref name="LevinCh80c">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), ch. 80, printed pp. קנט–קס (159–160) [= PDF pp. 169–170], citing his responsa in ''Igrot Kodesh Admur Maharash'', letters 41–42, and letters of the Rashab and the Rayatz.</ref> Levin's following chapters describe the manuscript and book collections that passed through his hands, including his own large collection of transcripts of earlier Rebbes' discourses.<ref name="LevinCh81">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit'' (2010), chs. 81–83, printed pp. קסב ff. (162 ff.) [= PDF pp. 172 ff.].</ref>

== Teaching ==
Loewenthal writes that Shmuel "likewise is noted for his activism and also for the profundity of his thought as an exponent of the mystical Hasidic teachings", and that he left a considerable library of discourses, published in chronological volumes.<ref name="Loew183">Loewenthal, ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990), p. 183.</ref><ref name="Loew213" /> Kehot has published them in the series ''Torat Shmuel'', arranged by year (for example ''Torat Shmuel 5626''); Chabad.org states that "Over twenty volumes of his works have thus far been published".<ref name="LevinCh81" /><ref name="ChabadMain" /> His best-known extended work is the discourse series ''Ve-kakhah'' (''Hemshekh Vekakhah ha-Gadol'') of 5637 (1877).<ref name="ChabadMain" />
Rubin disputes the claim made by the sociologist Samuel Heilman that Shmuel's creation of the post of ''mashpi'a'' (spiritual mentor) was "a reflection of his charismatic limitations". He argues that it testifies instead "to his vision for the perpetuation of the Chabad way of life and worship, and to the confidence with which he asserted his authority".<ref name="Rubin362">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), pp. 362–363.</ref> Citing government reports used by Ilia Lurie, Rubin writes that "Maharash became wealthy by investing in stock exchanges and other businesses, and that he kept a wine cellar", and that "he was the first Chabad rebbe to wear clothing cut in the European style".<ref name="Rubin364">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 364.</ref> He concludes that "independent testimonies do uphold the underlying claim that Maharash boldly embraced the economic and technological innovations of his time, engaged the world beyond Lubavitch, and carried his charisma and wit lightly."<ref name="Rubin365">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 365.</ref>

On the teaching, Rubin describes ''Hemshekh ve-kakhah ha-gadol'' as Shmuel's "best-known and most influential contribution": a series of discourses "whose initial installment was delivered in the spring of 1877, on the festival of Passover", "totaling forty-six discourses in all".<ref name="Rubin367">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 367.</ref> He finds that the discourses "are notable for the bold brevity with which he reconstrues and reconceptualizes theological concepts",<ref name="Rubin374">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 374.</ref> and that "the rhetoric of acosmism would be increasingly displaced" in later Chabad thought.<ref name="Rubin376">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 376.</ref> He concludes that "the presumption that he was merely the unremarkable heir to the waning vitality of his predecessors cannot be upheld", and that the period was "a false twilight, in which a new foundation was laid for the perpetuation and expansion of Chabad-Lubavitch as both an intellectual and activist movement in the century that followed."<ref name="Rubin381">Rubin, "False Twilight" (2021), p. 381.</ref>


=== "Lechatchila ariber" ===
Chabad.org gives his best-known saying as: "The world says: If you can't go under [an obstacle], leap over; I say: In the first place, go over!"<ref name="ChabadMain" /> In Yiddish the key phrase is ''lechatchila ariber'', "over, in the first place". Chabadpedia, a Chabad wiki, gives the Yiddish as it appears in a letter of [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], who says he heard it from his father, the Rashab, who heard it from Shmuel: "Di velt zogt az men kon nit arunter, darf men ariber; un ikh halt az men darf lechatchila ariber."<ref name="Chabadpedia">[https://chabadpedia.com/Lechatchila_Ariber "Lechatchila Ariber"], ''Chabadpedia'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side community wiki; the underlying letter of the Rayatz has not been seen.</ref> The saying became a watchword in the seventh Rebbe's time; [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] used it in his letters, for instance to urge a sick correspondent to rejoice in advance of recovery.<ref name="ChabadAriber">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2718066/jewish/What-Does-Lchatchila-Ariber-Mean.htm "What Does L'chatchila Ariber Mean?"], ''Chabad.org'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side primary source.</ref>


== Communal activism and the pogroms ==
Loewenthal describes Shmuel's "direct involvement in the Jewish community" as that of a latter-day ''shtadlan'', who travelled abroad to seek foreign help to protect Russian Jews.<ref name="Loew213" /> The ''Challenge'' biography says that in 1869 he "organized a permanent council of leaders of the St Petersburg Jewish community", whose task was "to be well-informed in all matters concerning the Jewish people and to be on constant guard to defend their interests and rights".<ref name="ChabadBrief" />

=== The 1879–82 pogroms ===
In the Chabad account, he went repeatedly to St Petersburg as anti-Jewish agitation grew and was assured by officials that it would be stopped, "but pogroms broke out again in 5640 (1880) in Kiev and Nieshin". Returning from abroad, he went to the capital and, "with the aid of Professor Bertenson, court physician to the Czar", obtained an audience with the Minister of the Interior. There he is said to have reproached the minister for breaking his word, and warned that foreign financiers were asking him how to respond. The ''Challenge'' account has the minister reply: "Rabbi of Lubavitch, do you dare to intimidate the Russian government with threats of the power of foreign capitalists? Are you threatening a revolution in this country?" Shmuel answered that "it is the negligent and weak conduct of the Imperial Government in the past that could now bring about a revolution in this country". He was then kept under house arrest at his hotel for two days, and on the third day the minister gave "a positive reply to his request".<ref name="ChabadBrief" /> The Kehot timeline sums this up as "1880: Successfully lobbies to halt pogroms."<ref name="ChabadTimeline" /> The story derives from the Rayatz's ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', in which the Rashab is quoted recounting it; that version names the intermediary as "Professor Josef Bertenson".<ref name="Toldot">[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', English translation, [https://www.sichos-in-english.org/books/sefer-hatoldos-admur-maharash/06.htm "For the Public Benefit"], ''Sichos in English'', accessed 15 October 2026. Chabad-side hagiographical memoir.</ref>

Historians date the wave of pogroms that began in the southern provinces to spring 1881, after the assassination of [[Alexander II]]. In August 1881, at the request of the Interior Minister Count [[Nikolai Ignatiev]], provincial commissions were set up in the Pale to investigate "Jewish economic harm"; they led to the restrictive "May Laws" of 1882. Russian Jewry's traditional leaders, centred on the Gintsburg family in St Petersburg, responded through lobbying and two meetings of communal representatives in the capital in August 1881 and early 1882.<ref name="KlierNP" />

'''A police report of 1882.''' The only non-Chabad trace found so far comes from a Russian police file. On the ''selihot'' fast and services held across the Pale in early 1882 (10 Shevat, 1 February 1882) in response to the pogroms, Klier writes: "Interestingly, given Vital's equation of the Habad tradition with political quietism, the Lubavitcher Rebbe made use of the occasion of the selihot service to impose a tax on the Jews of Vitebsk, reportedly to collect funds to bribe Ignatiev."<ref name="KlierRJP262">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', p. 262 and n. 29, citing GARF, f. 542, op. 1, d. 175 (1882), ll. 19–20ob (21/II/1882).</ref> [[Nikolai Ignatiev]] was Interior Minister from May 1881 to May 1882. Klier's source is an informer's claim. His footnote says that "The police file provides the name of the informer who made this claim, one Ber Abramovich Gittel'son. It would be interesting to establish the possibility that he was a maskilic or mitnagdic foe of the rebbe."<ref name="KlierRJP262" /> The report therefore concerns alleged fundraising in 1882 and does not confirm the ministerial lobbying described in Chabad accounts. Klier sets it within a wider point: "some orthodox religious leaders engaged in political activity that incorporated modern elements."<ref name="KlierRJP263">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', p. 263.</ref>

=== Other accounts of the 1881–82 pogroms ===
The Chabad narrative assumes that the pogroms were instigated "from Government circles"<ref name="ChabadBrief" />, a view widely held at the time. Three other bodies of writing see the period differently. They are set out here by viewpoint and weighed by the evidence each offers.

'''Revisionist archival scholarship.''' I. Michael Aronson's ''Troubled Waters'' (1990) set out to test "the idea that the pogroms were planned, which for the sake of convenience I call the conspiracy theory",<ref name="Aronson5">[[I. Michael Aronson]], ''Troubled Waters: The Origins of the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990), ISBN 978-0-8229-8525-9, p. 5.</ref> and concluded that "there was indeed no conspiracy behind the pogroms of 1881."<ref name="Aronson217">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 217.</ref> He traces the violence instead to popular rumour, including the belief that "the new tsar had issued an ukaz (a decree or edict) calling on the people to beat the Jews"; "The rioters were convinced they were acting out of loyalty to the regime."<ref name="Aronson228">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', pp. 228, 230.</ref> He also holds that the Judeophobe press "contributed a great deal to creating an environment conducive to pogroms."<ref name="Aronson230">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 230.</ref> Aronson records that "On 11 May 1881, Alexander III met with a delegation of Jewish notables."<ref name="Aronson193">Aronson, ''Troubled Waters'', p. 193.</ref> Klier later wrote that Aronson "provided a definitive rejection of the myth that the pogroms of 1881 were organized, instigated, and spread by officials of the imperial government or by 'dark forces' close to them."<ref name="KlierRJPxv">[[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4, Foreword, p. xv.</ref>

[[John Klier]], working in post-Soviet archives, went further. His 2011 book states that "Contemporary research has dispelled the myth that Russian officials were responsible for instigating, permitting, or approving the pogroms."<ref name="KlierRJPxiv">Klier, ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', Foreword, p. xiv.</ref> In an earlier essay he wrote:
<blockquote>
One of the most enduring myths of the pogroms of 1881–1882, of course, is that they were instigated, encouraged, or tolerated by the authorities – if not at the highest level, then at least at the local one. The strength of belief in this myth does not make it true. ... The research of I. Michael Aronson effectively disproves the claim that there was a conspiracy which underlay the pogroms. My work in post-communist archives supports my contention that the Russian government opposed pogroms at every level
</blockquote>
Klier adds that rioters were flogged, imprisoned and exiled, that "Local officials who were judged derelict of duty during pogroms lost their positions, and some were prosecuted", and that "as many rioters as Jews died in the pogroms of 1881–1882."<ref name="KlierNP">[[John Klier]], [https://jewishstudies.ceu.edu/sites/jewishstudies.ceu.edu/files/attachment/basicpage/70/02klier.pdf "New Politics for Old: A Reassessment of the Traditional Jewish Political Leadership in 1881–1882"], Central European University Jewish Studies (PDF), pp. 2–3, accessed 15 October 2026.</ref> Klier does not treat "Jewish exploitation" as an explanation he accepts. He treats it as the officials' own framework: the introduction to his book says that Russian views of Jews' shortcomings "were encapsulated in two slogans, 'religious fanaticism' and 'economic exploitation,'" and that the government "feared that the Jews were exploiting the unsophisticated and ignorant rural inhabitants, thus reducing them to a 'Jewish serfdom.'"<ref name="KlierRJP">[[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4, Introduction (essay and book cited separately); [https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/95484/excerpt/9780521895484_excerpt.pdf publisher's excerpt], accessed 15 October 2026.</ref> On this reading, Ignatiev's provincial commissions on "Jewish economic harm" and the May Laws of 1882 were the state's answer to the pogroms: restricting Jews rather than organising violence against them.<ref name="KlierNP" />


'''Israel Shahak (polemic).''' The Israeli chemist and civil-rights campaigner [[Israel Shahak]] wrote a polemical critique of rabbinic Judaism in which he places Jews in the old Polish lands as the agents of the landlords against the serfs. In ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' he writes that "in eastern Poland ... the Jews were both the immediate exploiters of the peasantry and virtually the only town-dwellers", and that Jewish autonomy was used "to justify the Jews' role in the oppression of the peasants in the service of the nobles".<ref name="Shahak75">[[Israel Shahak]], ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years'', new edition with a foreword by Ilan Pappe (London: Pluto Press, 2008; first published 1994), ISBN 978-0-7453-2840-9 (pbk), pp. 75–76. Polemic.</ref> On Russia he accepts that the state was involved but limits it: "The Tsarist government, acting surreptitiously through its secret police, did promote pogroms; but it did so only when it was particularly weak (after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 ...)".<ref name="Shahak78">Shahak, ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' (2008), p. 78. Polemic.</ref> With Norton Mezvinsky he argues that intra-Jewish violence before 1881 resembled "what were called 'pogroms' when committed by non-Jews against Jews", claiming that "Until 1881 in Russia, the number of riots by Jews against other Jews probably exceeded the number of pogroms by non-Jews against Jews", and that "The previously persecuted Hassids were the major and worst persecutors".<ref name="ShahakMez133">[[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'', new edition (London and Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2004; first published 1999), ISBN 0-7453-2090-2 (pbk), ch. 7, "The Religious Background of Rabin's Assassination", p. 133. Polemic.</ref> In the same chapter the authors go further than Shahak's earlier book, writing that "in 1881 the government instigated Russian and Ukrainian pogroms began".<ref name="ShahakMez134">Shahak and Mezvinsky, ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'' (2004), ch. 7, p. 134. Polemic.</ref> Neither book mentions Shmuel Schneersohn. Shahak's only discussion of Habad's history concerns the ''Tanya'', which he calls "fundamental book of the Habbad movement, one of the most important branches of Hassidism", and the seventh Rebbe; it has no bearing on the Maharash.<ref name="Shahak32">Shahak, ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion'' (2008), pp. 32–33. Polemic.</ref>


== Travels ==
Chabad.org says that "despite his frail health" he "traveled extensively throughout Europe, meeting with government and business leaders and lobbying them to exert pressure on the Czarist regime to halt its instigation of pogroms against its Jewish citizens", helped by "His fluency in languages such as Latin, French and Russian".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> The Kehot timeline records journeys to Germany (1859) and France (1868) "to confer with communal leaders".<ref name="ChabadTimeline" /> Loewenthal confirms the general picture of foreign journeys in search of help for Russian Jews.<ref name="Loew213" />


== Death and succession ==
He died in Lubavitch on 13 Tishrei 5643 (26 September 1882 Gregorian; 14 September Old Style) and was buried in the ''ohel'' built over his father's grave.<ref name="LevinCh80b" /> Chabad.org says that he "throughout his life suffered from many ailments" and died "at the young age of 48".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> His death was reported in the Hebrew newspaper ''[[Ha-Melitz]]'' of 10 October 1882.<ref name="Melitz">''Ha-Melitz'', 10 October 1882, p. 8 (death notice); a scan is held on [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shmuel_Schneersohn.png Wikimedia Commons] (public domain). The text of the notice has not been transcribed for this page.</ref>

Chabad.org says that he "was succeeded by his third son, Rabbi Shalom Dovber of Lubavitch".<ref name="ChabadMain" /> In fact the leadership stayed formally vacant for about eleven years: his son [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]] delivered discourses from 1882 but, according to Chabad sources, did not formally accept the leadership until 1893, in deference to his elder brother Schneur Zalman Aharon. That interregnum is covered on the page [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]].


== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)]]
* [[Dovber Schneuri]]
* [[Shalom Dovber Schneersohn]]
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]
* [[Kopust (Hasidic dynasty)]]
* [[History of Chabad in Tsarist Russia – Selected Chapters, 1770–1920]]

== Bibliography ==
* [[Shalom Dovber Levin]], ''Toldot Chabad b'Russia HaTzarit – Perakim Nivcharim, 1770–1920'', Brooklyn: Kehot / Otzar HaChassidim, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8266-5327-7. Chabad-side.
* [[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-226-49045-8.
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]], ''Sefer ha-Toldot Admur Maharash'', Brooklyn: Kehot. Chabad-side hagiographical memoir.
* [[I. Michael Aronson]], ''Troubled Waters: The Origins of the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia'', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-8229-8525-9.
* [[Eli Rubin]], "Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch ('Maharash,' 1834–1882) and the False Twilight of Chabad Hasidism", ''AJS Review'' 45:2 (2021), pp. 348–381, doi:10.1017/S0364009421000106.
* [[John Klier]], ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4.
* [[David Assaf]] and Gadi Sagiv, "Hasidism in Tsarist Russia: Historical and Social Aspects", ''Jewish History'' 27 (2013), pp. 241–269.
* Ilia Lurie, ''Edah u-medinah: hasidut Habad ba-imperyah ha-rusit 1828–1882'', Jerusalem, 2006. (Not seen.)
* [[Israel Shahak]], ''Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years'', new edition, London: Pluto Press, 2008 (first published 1994), ISBN 978-0-7453-2840-9. Polemic.
* [[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], ''Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel'', new edition, London and Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2004 (first published 1999), ISBN 0-7453-2090-2. Polemic.
* ''Torat Shmuel'' (collected discourses), Brooklyn: Kehot, multiple volumes. Chabad-side.

== External links ==
* [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/626953/jewish/The-Rebbe-Maharash.htm The Rebbe Maharash] – Chabad.org portal
* [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/Shneerson_Family Lubavitch Hasidism] – YIVO Encyclopedia

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Schneersohn, Shmuel]]
[[Category:Chabad|Schneersohn, Shmuel]]

Friends of Yad Sarah

2026-10-15T21:27:41Z

David: David moved page Friends of Yad Sarah to Friends of Yad Sarah, Inc.

#REDIRECT [[Friends of Yad Sarah, Inc.]]

Friends of Yad Sarah, Inc.

2026-10-15T21:27:41Z

David: David moved page Friends of Yad Sarah to Friends of Yad Sarah, Inc.

Friends of Yad Sarah is a US based foundation.

==See also==
*[[Yad Sarah]] | [[Friends of Yad Sarah UK]]

==Notyes==
<references/>

Ballards Lane, London

2026-10-15T15:32:03Z

David:

*[[35 Ballards Lane, London]]
*[[116 Ballards Lane, London, N3 2DN]]

*[[305 Ballards Lane, London, N12 8GB]]

Shalom Foundation of the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland

2026-10-15T15:31:44Z

David: /* Contact */

Shalom Foundation of the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland is a registered charity (1026535) integrated within the [[Zionist Federation]]. The charity was registered on 23 September 1993 at the address: PO Box 1948, 116 Ballards Lane, Finchley, London, N3 2DN. "The principal activity of the Charity is to raise funds for worthwhile charitable causes selected at the discretion of the Trustees." <ref> Shalom Foundation of the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland,[https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-search/-/charity-details/1026535 Charity Commission - archived on 24 Nov. 21] </ref>

All donations payable to the Zionist Federation (by post) are payable to the Shalom Foundation which operates the donations for the ZF. <ref> Donate to ZF, ZFUK, archived on 13 December 2021 at https://archive.ph/wip/adCB2 </ref>

==Finances==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Income (£) !! Donations/Grants (£) !!
<ref> Shalom Foundation of the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-search/-/charity-details/1026535/accounts-and-annual-returns Charity Commission Accounts - archived on 24 Nov. 21] </ref>
|-
| 2020 ||53,000|| 53,000 ||
|-
| 2019 ||101,290 || 100,000||
|-
|2018 || 126,660 || 121,000||
|-
|2017 || 256,910 || 284,000 ||
|-
|2016 || 218,420 || 206,700 ||
|-
|2015 || 284,850 || 335,000 ||
|}

==Funding==
*[[David and Ruth Lewis Family Charitable Trust‎‎]]

==Contact==
Registered Address: PO Box 1948, 116 [[Ballards Lane, London|Ballards Lane]], Finchley, London, N3 2DN

==Notes==

<references/>
[[Category:Zionist movement UK]]

Ballards Lane, London

2026-10-15T15:30:56Z

David: Created page with "*35 Ballards Lane, London *116 Ballards Lane, London *305 Ballards Lane, London, N12 8GB"

*[[35 Ballards Lane, London]]
*[[116 Ballards Lane, London]]

*[[305 Ballards Lane, London, N12 8GB]]

305 Ballards Lane, London, N12 8GB

2026-10-15T15:30:04Z

David:

305 Ballards Lane, London, N12 8GB is the address of a number of companies and charities especially those associated with [[United Synagogue]] one of the seven main Synagogue movements in the UK representing largely Synagogue's catering for Ashkenazi 'Central Orthodox' Jews.<ref>JCR-UK [https://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/Affiliations/United_Synagogue.htm United Synagogue]</ref> See [[Ballards Lane, London]] for other residents.

*[[Office of the Chief Rabbi]]
==Charities==
*[[United Synagogue]] Charity number: 242552
*[[KLBD Kosher Certification]]/[[Kosher London Beth Din]] Registered Charity No 242552 (ie part of [[United Synagogue]])
*[[Scopus Jewish Educational Trust]] (Charity number: 313154) linked to the [[Zionist Federation]].

==Companies==
*[[United Synagogue Design & Build Ltd]] 06797965 - Incorporated on 21 January 2009
*[[United Synagogue Trusts limited]] 00516140 - Incorporated on 14 February 1953
*[[United Synagogue Kashrut Board (The)]] 02089374 - Dissolved on 14 May 2013
*[[University Jewish Chaplaincy]] 06543595 - Incorporated on 25 March 2008
*[[London Board Trustee Limited]] 04117554 - Incorporated on 27 November 2000
*[[United Synagogue Youth Charity (The)]] 02033941 - Incorporated on 3 July 1986
*[[US Advertising Limited]] 02146769 - Incorporated on 13 July 1987
*[[United Central Catering]] Previous names: UNITED SYNAGOGUE (CENTRAL CATERING) 11279144 - Incorporated on 27 March 2018
===Dissolved===
*[[United Synagogue Publications Limited]] 01896677 - Dissolved on 8 May 2012
*[[United Synagogue Educational Charity (The)]] 02033940 - Dissolved on 17 January 2012

==Notes==
<references/>

Ashtrom Properties U.K Ltd

2026-10-15T15:27:30Z

David: /* Profile */

'''Ashtrom Properties U.K Ltd''' is a company on the UK [[Companies House]] register with address or ownership links to Israel. This profile is part of [[UK companies linked to 'Israel']]; see [[UK companies linked to 'Israel': Methodology]] for how companies were selected and scored.

==Profile==
{{Infobox company
| name = Ashtrom Properties U.K Ltd
| type = Private limited Company
| industry = 68100 - Buying and selling of own real estate
| hq_location = 35 Ballards Lane, London, N3 1XW, England
}}

* '''Category:''' P / O / T / D (Israeli corporate PSC / parent company; officer(s) with an Israeli correspondence address; documented activity in the occupied territories (entity or parent group); defence, security, surveillance or cyber-intelligence activity); connection score 3
* '''Company number:''' 11153181<ref name="CH11153181" />
* '''Status:''' Active
* '''Type:''' Private limited Company
* '''Incorporated / registered:''' 16 Jan 2018
* '''SIC:''' 68100 - Buying and selling of own real estate
* '''Registered office:''' [[35 Ballards Lane, London, N3 1XW]], England
* '''Listing / market cap:''' Not listed. Parent Ashtrom Group (TASE): market cap not verified.

'''Israel connection:'''
* CH PSC: Ashtrom Group Ltd (Bnei Brak, Israel), 75%+, since Nov 2020 (before that Ashtrom Properties Ltd, Tel Aviv). Directors Guy Lewinsohn and Oren Nussbaum (CH).
* [[Who Profits]] lists Ashtrom Properties U.K. Ltd as a 100% subsidiary of the group and Clal Insurance as a 5.53% shareholder.<ref name="WPAshtrom">Who Profits Research Center, [https://www.whoprofits.org/companies/company/3795 Ashtrom Group] ''Who Profits'', information valid to 13 August 2025.</ref>

'''Persons with significant control (CH):'''<ref name="CH11153181" />
* [[Ashtrom Group Ltd]] (active) — address: 3, Bnei Brak, 5120124, Israel; legal form Public Company; governing law Israel; registered at Registrar Of Companies, Israel; registration number 510381601; country registered Israel; notified 4 Nov 2020; nature of control: ownership of shares – 75% or more; voting rights – 75% or more; right to appoint or remove directors
* [[Ashtrom Properties Ltd]] (ceased) — address: Yona Kremnitzky, Tel Aviv, 6789910, Israel; legal form Ltd; governing law Isreal; registered at Isreal; registration number 520036617; country registered Isreal; notified 16 Jan 2018; ceased 4 Nov 2020; nature of control: ownership of shares – 75% or more; voting rights – 75% or more; right to appoint or remove directors

'''Directors (CH; 2 director appointments, 2 current; † = Israel correspondence address, 0 appointments):'''<ref name="CH11153181" />

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+ Directors (month/year as shown by Companies House; † = Israel correspondence address, an address fact only)
! Name !! Born (month/year) !! Service !! †
|-
| [[Guy Lewinsohn]] || May 1982 || Apr 2018–present ||
|-
| [[Oren Nussbaum]] || April 1981 || Jan 2018–present ||
|}

'''Latest accounts (income/expenditure):''' Full accounts for FY to 31 Dec 2025 (filed 25 Sep 2026; scanned, read by OCR): dividends received £2,114,331 (2024: £5,607,542); administrative expenses £(2,036,071); profit from operations £78,260; finance income £6,288,882; profit before tax £6,301,693; profit for the year £5,453,049 (2024: £9,549,492).<ref name="CH11153181FH">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11153181/filing-history Ashtrom Properties U.K Ltd (11153181): filing history] ''Find and update company information (GOV.UK)''.</ref>

'''Arms trade involvement:''' Parent group: [[Who Profits]] says Ashtrom supplied concrete blocks to the Israeli Ministry of Defense and the Israel Prison Service.<ref name="WPAshtrom" />

'''Supply to the IDF / Israel MOD / Israeli security services:''' Parent group: [[Who Profits]] says Ashtrom built in the IDF "City of Training Bases" and carried out the 2021 expansion of Ofer Prison in the West Bank.<ref name="WPAshtrom" />

'''Activities in the occupied territories:''' Parent group: [[Who Profits]] says Ashtrom owns 50% of the Netivey Edomit quarry near Mishor Adumim, runs a cement plant in Atarot and a concrete plant in Pisgat Ze'ev, holds 33% of a solar partnership in the occupied Golan, was a CityPass partner in the Jerusalem Light Rail, and earlier built in Beitar Illit (1994) and in Sinai settlements.<ref name="WPAshtrom" /> No OPT activity by the UK company was found.

'''Links to the Israeli government:''' None documented in the sources reviewed.

'''WZO / JNF / Jewish Agency / Keren Hayesod:''' None found in the sources reviewed.

'''Controversies (protests, legal cases, export-licence rulings):'''
* Parent group listed in the [[Who Profits]] database.<ref name="WPAshtrom" />

==See also==
*[[UK companies linked to 'Israel']]
*[[UK Companies with Address or Ownership Links to Israel - Alphabetical]]
*[[UK Companies with Address or Ownership Links to Israel - Ranked by density of connection]]
*[[UK Companies with documented links to business activity in the Occupied Palestinian territories and the occupied Golan]]
*[[UK defence, security, surveillance and dual-use technology companies with documented business ties to 'Israel']]
*[[UK companies linked to 'Israel': Methodology]]

==Notes==
<references>
<ref name="CH11153181">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11153181 Ashtrom Properties U.K Ltd (11153181): company overview] ''Find and update company information (GOV.UK)''.</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Israel]]
[[Category:Organisations with links to Israel]]
[[Category:Occupied territories]]
[[Category:Israeli settlements]]
[[Category:Arms Industry]]
[[Category:Security Industry]]
[[Category:Defence]]
[[Category:Surveillance]]
[[Category:Property/Land Companies and Interests]]
[[Category:Banking and Finance Industry]]
[[Category:United Kingdom cyber security]]

Powerbase:Image Use Policy and Guidelines

2026-10-15T14:41:08Z

David: /* Copyrights */

{{Powerbase:Help}}

You can upload images and scanned documents into the Powerbase database. This page covers Powerbase policy in regards to the use of images as well as providing some guidelines in how to add pictures to a page. Guidelines for adding images can also be found in [[Powerbase:How To Edit A Page|How to edit a page]].

==Copyrights==
Only copyright-free images, or images that you have obtained permission to use, can be added to Powerbase. See Powerbase [[Powerbase:Copyrights|Copyrights]] policy for further information.

All images are copyrighted by the person who originated the image. This person can choose to make the image copyright-free and place it in the public doman, which is in some cases specifically stated.<ref>For more information, see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Copyrights#Image_guidelines Guidelines for images and other media files], Wikipedia, accessed 19 October 2009.</ref>

If no such copyright-free notice is posted, then we have to get specific permission from the owner of the copyright before we can use the image, and say how it’s going to be used.<ref>For more information, see [http://www.jiscdigitalmedia.ac.uk/stillimages/advice/frequently-asked-questions-about-copyright/ Frequently Asked Questions About Copyright], JISC Digital Media website, accessed 19 Oct 2009</ref> Therefore in principle, images we take from government sites, from MPs’ sites, etc could potentially be problematic legally. Tough there have been cases of companies claiming that use of their logo suggests wrongly that they approve of the article content, these are comparatively rare.<ref>[http://bittergreensgazette.blogspot.com/2005/08/monsanto-to-bitter-greens-cease-and.html Monsanto to Bitter Greens: "Cease" and Desist], Bitter Greens Journal blog, 26 Aug 2005, accessed 19 Oct 2009</ref> In practice profiling an organisation and using its logo to do that is likely not to be problematic.

For free copyright-free images, try
http://www.freeimages.co.uk/

Also wiki commons
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

In each case, you need to find your image, then click on the picture and check that it really is copyright-free in the terms given, as not all of them are.

If you intend to use an image from a website (such as from a company's own or government website) and think that the image is copyright free, check in the File Info section for any notes on copyright. Alternatively, check in the copyrights section of the website.

If you have unique material - such as a document obtained under a Freedom of Information Act request or a photograph taken by yourself - then feel free to upload it into the Powerbase database and link to it in the relevant article.

Otherwise,''' please do not use images without written (or emailed) permission'''. There are various image firms that make most of their money by suing people for using their pictures without permission, and they will take action over the most seemingly trivial infractions of their copyright. They have special software that trawls the net looking for their images, so the fact that they are not likely to visit the Powerbase site in person is no protection.

===Fair use===

It used to be commonly argued that re-using an image for non-profit, reporting or educational purposes was fair use and therefore not subject to copyright law. The fair use concept is extremely complex and is coming under increasing challenge from lawyers worldwide. We therefore cannot always rely on it as a defence in re-using images.<ref>[http://www.utsystem.edu/OGC/IntellectualProperty/copypol2.htm What is fair use?], Univ of Texas website, accessed 19 Oct 2009</ref>

===Which copyright laws apply to Powerbase?===

Just because Powerbase is based in the UK doesn't mean that the site is subject only to UK copyright law. Lawyers can use the law of any country in which the site is accessible, or they can use "international copyright law".

===What type of file should I use?===
* It is best to use '''JPEG''' files (with the *.jpg suffix) wherever possible or alternatively '''PNG''' files (with the *.png suffix). Do not use Windows BMP format images; they are uncompressed and take up too much space.

* It is also best to '''keep the file size down to less than 100k'''. The smaller the better. Remember that there are many web users on slow dialup connections and we don't want to deter them from accessing Powerbase because of slow-loading pages due to big images.

*'''Adobe Acrobat files (PDFs)''': A general rule of thumb is that if the document already exists in a location where it is likely to remain, it it better to link to it than upload it. The important issue is that it can be accessed somewhere by readers if it is necessary for verification of important points.

==How to upload an image or pdf==

Please go to [[Powerbase:How to Post Images, Photos, Screengrabs, and Video Clips]].

==Related Powerbase resources==
* [[Special:Upload|Upload page]]
* [[Special:Imagelist|List of uploaded files]]
* [[Special:Log/upload|Upload log]]

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Powerbase Help]]

Powerbase:Image Use Policy and Guidelines

2026-10-15T14:39:39Z

David: /* Copyrights */

{{Powerbase:Help}}

You can upload images and scanned documents into the Powerbase database. This page covers Powerbase policy in regards to the use of images as well as providing some guidelines in how to add pictures to a page. Guidelines for adding images can also be found in [[Powerbase:How To Edit A Page|How to edit a page]].

==Copyrights==
Only copyright-free images, or images that you have obtained permission to use, can be added to Powerbase. See Powerbase [[Powerbase:Copyrights|Copyrights]] policy for further information.

All images are copyrighted by the person who originated the image. This person can choose to make the image copyright-free and place it in the public doman, which is in some cases specifically stated.<ref>For more information, see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Copyrights#Image_guidelines Guidelines for images and other media files], Wikipedia, accessed 19 October 2009.</ref>

If no such copyright-free notice is posted, then we have to get specific permission from the owner of the copyright before we can use the image, and say how it’s going to be used.<ref>For more information, see [http://www.jiscdigitalmedia.ac.uk/stillimages/advice/frequently-asked-questions-about-copyright/ Frequently Asked Questions About Copyright], JISC Digital Media website, accessed 19 Oct 2009</ref> Therefore in principle, images we take from government sites, from MPs’ sites, etc could potentially be problematic legally. Tough there have been cases of companies claiming that use of their logo suggests wrongly that they approve of the article content, these are comparatively rare.<ref>[http://bittergreensgazette.blogspot.com/2005/08/monsanto-to-bitter-greens-cease-and.html Monsanto to Bitter Greens: "Cease" and Desist], Bitter Greens Journal blog, 26 Aug 2005, accessed 19 Oct 2009</ref> In practice profiling an organisation and using its logo to do that is likely not to be problematic.

For free copyright-free images, try
http://www.freeimages.co.uk/

Also wiki commons
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

In each case, you need to find your image, then click on the picture and check that it really is copyright-free in the terms given, as not all of them are.

If you intend to use an image from a website (such as from a company's own or government website) and think that the image is copyright free, check in the File Info section for any notes on copyright. Alternatively, check in the copyrights section of the website.

If you have unique material - such as a document obtained under a Freedom of Information Act request or a photograph taken by yourself - then feel free to upload it into the Powerbase database and link to it in the relevant article.

Otherwise,''' please do not use images without written (or emailed) permission'''. There are various image firms that make most of their money by suing people for using their pictures without permission, and they will take action over the most seemingly trivial infractions of their copyright. They have special software that trawls the net looking for their images, so the fact that they are not likely to visit the Powerbase site in person is no protection.

P'''lease avoid using company logos in all cases'''. The law on this is unclear but there have been cases of companies harassing people who reproduce logos on their own websites or blogs. In one case the company claimed that use of its logo implied that the company endorsed the content of the website, even though that content was clearly criticizing the company. We at Powerbase do not want to get into such discussions, which can tie up valuable time and resources.

===Fair use===

It used to be commonly argued that re-using an image for non-profit, reporting or educational purposes was fair use and therefore not subject to copyright law. The fair use concept is extremely complex and is coming under increasing challenge from lawyers worldwide. We therefore cannot rely on it as a defence in re-using images.<ref>[http://www.utsystem.edu/OGC/IntellectualProperty/copypol2.htm What is fair use?], Univ of Texas website, accessed 19 Oct 2009</ref>

===Which copyright laws apply to Powerbase?===

Just because Powerbase is based in the UK doesn't mean that the site is subject only to UK copyright law. Lawyers can use the law of any country in which the site is accessible, or they can use "international copyright law".

===What type of file should I use?===
* It is best to use '''JPEG''' files (with the *.jpg suffix) wherever possible or alternatively '''PNG''' files (with the *.png suffix). Do not use Windows BMP format images; they are uncompressed and take up too much space.

* It is also best to '''keep the file size down to less than 100k'''. The smaller the better. Remember that there are many web users on slow dialup connections and we don't want to deter them from accessing Powerbase because of slow-loading pages due to big images.

*'''Adobe Acrobat files (PDFs)''': A general rule of thumb is that if the document already exists in a location where it is likely to remain, it it better to link to it than upload it. The important issue is that it can be accessed somewhere by readers if it is necessary for verification of important points.

==How to upload an image or pdf==

Please go to [[Powerbase:How to Post Images, Photos, Screengrabs, and Video Clips]].

==Related Powerbase resources==
* [[Special:Upload|Upload page]]
* [[Special:Imagelist|List of uploaded files]]
* [[Special:Log/upload|Upload log]]

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Powerbase Help]]

Tanya

2026-10-14T17:58:29Z

David:

{{short description|'''Foundational work of Chabad Hasidism by Shneur Zalman of Liadi, first published in 1796, noted for its doctrine of the Jewish and non-Jewish soul'''}}

{{Infobox book
| name = Tanya
| title_orig = תניא / Likkutei Amarim (ליקוטי אמרים)
| author = [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]]
| country = [[Russian Empire]]
| language = Hebrew
| subject = Hasidic theology, Jewish mysticism, Lurianic Kabbalah
| genre = Religious text
| publisher = First edition: Slavita; standard edition: [[Kehot Publication Society]]
| pub_date = 1796 (first edition, as ''Likkutei Amarim''); 1798 (second edition, as ''Tanya''); 1814 (complete five-part edition)
}}
{{Chabad sidebar}}
'''The ''Tanya''''' (Hebrew: תניא, "it has been taught"), also published as '''''Likkutei Amarim''''' ("Collected Sayings"), is the foundational text of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] [[Hasidism]], written by [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]] (1745–1812), the movement's founder and first Rebbe. It was first printed anonymously at Slavita in 1796, and the [[YIVO]] encyclopedia dates it to 1797.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/2031161/jewish/What-is-the-Tanya.htm What is the Tanya? An Introduction to the Book, its Sources and its Composition] ''Chabad.org'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="YIVO">[[YIVO Institute for Jewish Research]], [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/shneur_zalman_of_liady Shneur Zalman of Liady] ''The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' records that Chabad Hasidim call it the "written law of Chabad" and "designate it for daily study". It is unusual among Hasidic works in being "a complete systematic exposition" by the founder of the system himself rather than a collection of sermons.<ref name="EJ">''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', [https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/shneur-zalman-liozna-lyady Shneur Zalman of (Liozna-) Lyady] ''Encyclopedia.com'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

The book sets out a mystical psychology built on [[Lurianic Kabbalah]]. At its centre is the ''beinoni'' ("intermediate person"), whose two souls are locked in continual struggle.<ref name="YIVO" /> The same teaching that gives every Jew a "divine soul" also holds, in the words of chapter one, that the souls of the nations derive "from the other, unclean ''kelipot'', which contain no good whatsoever". That passage has drawn repeated charges of racism or Jewish supremacism, which Chabad rabbis reject.<ref name="Ch1">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], elucidated by Yosef Wineberg, [https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/6087835/jewish/Tanya-Chapter-1-Part-1.htm Tanya: Chapter 1 – Part 1] ''Lessons in Tanya'', [[Chabad.org]], Brooklyn: [[Kehot Publication Society]], accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="Balk">Hanan Balk, [https://hakirah.org/Vol%2016%20Balk.pdf The Soul of a Jew and the Soul of a Non-Jew: An Inconvenient Truth and the Search for an Alternative] ''Ḥakirah, the Flatbush Journal of Jewish Law and Thought'', 2013, Vol. 16, pp. 47ff.</ref>

Under the seventh Rebbe, [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], printing the ''Tanya'' became a worldwide campaign. Chabad's own magazine counted more than 6,700 local editions by 2016, including editions produced by Chabad soldiers inside the [[Gaza Strip]] in 2024.<ref name="Derher">''A Chassidisher Derher'', [https://derher.org/wp-content/uploads/42-adar-2-5776-09.pdf Printing the Tanya] ''A Chassidisher Derher'', Adar II 5776 (2016), Issue 42.</ref><ref name="ChabadGaza">Yaakov Ort, [https://www.chabad.org/news/article_cdo/aid/6294213/jewish/After-Months-of-Starts-and-Stops-the-Tanya-Is-Printed-in-Gaza.htm After Months of Starts and Stops, the Tanya Is Printed in Gaza] ''Chabad.org'', 25 January 2024.</ref>

== Authorship and composition ==
Before he committed his teachings to writing, [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]] preached them orally. According to Chabad's introduction to the book, his discourses were "recorded from memory by his disciples" and circulated in manuscript. Many of these copies were "replete with errors as a result of repeated copying and transcription, or by the malicious mischief of opponents", which prompted him to publish an authorised outline of his system.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /> He called the work ''Likkutei Amarim'' ("Collected Sayings"), presenting it as a selection of discourses drawn "from books and scribes, heavenly saints". The subtitle ''Sefer shel Beinonim'' ("Book of the Intermediates") signalled that it was written for the ordinary believer rather than the saint.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /><ref name="WhyTanya">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/4246615/jewish/Why-Is-Tanya-Called-Tanya.htm Why Is Tanya Called "Tanya"?] ''Chabad.org'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

The book appeared during the bitter conflict between Hasidim and their rabbinic opponents, the [[Mitnagdim]]. YIVO reports that in October 1798 Shneur Zalman "was arrested and interrogated as a result of being denounced to the Russian authorities as a threat to the state". The informer alleged that Hasidism was "a new religion, forbidden by law" and that its leader was sending money abroad without permission. He was freed in Saint Petersburg on 19 Kislev, a date Chabad still celebrates. A second arrest followed in 1801, after a denunciation by Avigdor ben Ḥayim, the deposed rabbi of Pinsk.<ref name="YIVO" /><ref name="EJ" /> The Israeli historian [[Immanuel Etkes]] has reconstructed both imprisonments from Russian interrogation records, and his biography gives a chapter to ''Sefer shel Beinonim''.<ref name="Etkes">[[Immanuel Etkes]], [https://brandeisuniversitypress.com/title/rabbi-shneur-zalman-of-liady-the-origins-of-chabad-hasidism/ Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liady: The Origins of Chabad Hasidism] Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press (Tauber Institute Series), 2014/2015.</ref>

== Publication history ==
The first edition (Slavita, 1796) carried the title ''Likkutei Amarim''. The second (Zolkiew, 1798) promoted the opening word, ''Tanya'', to the title and kept ''Likkutei Amarim'' as a subtitle.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /><ref name="WhyTanya" /> The other parts were printed separately at Shklov: the short ''Iggeret ha-Teshuvah'' in 1799 and its longer version in 1806. The Shklov edition of 1814, published after the author's death, was the first to contain all five parts, "and this form has since been retained".<ref name="EJ" /> The standard modern Hebrew–English edition and commentary are published by the movement's publishing house, [[Kehot Publication Society]].<ref name="Ch1" />

=== The campaign to print the ''Tanya'' everywhere ===
According to Chabad's own account, [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] reasoned that a ''Tanya'' printed in a Jew's own city would "carry the same influence" that books shipped from elsewhere could not. His followers were therefore asked to print local editions "in every country and in each and every city where Yidden live". By 2016 they had produced "over six-thousand seven hundred editions".<ref name="Derher" /> Each edition records its place of printing, and the Kehot edition carries a list of all editions.<ref name="Derher" />

The campaign has repeatedly followed Israeli military operations. In 1982, during the [[Lebanon War]], the Rebbe "directed a group of Chassidim to print the Tanya in various Lebanese cities, including the capital city of Beirut". His instructions included printing "the name of the city where it was printed in both Hebrew and Arabic".<ref name="ChabadGaza" /> In January 2024 [[Israel Defense Forces]] Major [[Ezzy Morgenstern]], a Chabad rabbi and military chaplain, joined an armed convoy into the Gaza Strip and printed 100 copies at an IDF outpost. Chabad.org described it as fulfilling "a mission started by the Rebbe during the 1982 Lebanon war".<ref name="ChabadGaza" /> ''Israel National News'' reported that the Khan Yunis printing was managed by [[Tzeirei Agudas Chabad]] together with IDF soldiers. It was accompanied by the laying of tefillin and the fixing of a mezuzah, and Tzeirei Chabad chair [[Yosef Aharonov]] spoke of the Rebbe's "special attention to soldiers".<ref name="INN">''Israel National News'', [https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/384210 Deep in Gaza: Tanya printed on outskirts of Khan Yunis] ''Arutz Sheva / Israel National News'', 26 January 2024.</ref> Further printings followed in Rafah, according to the Chabad news site ''Anash.org''.<ref name="AnashKY">''Anash.org'', [https://anash.org/amid-fighting-tanya-printed-in-the-heart-of-khan-yunis/ Amid Fighting, Tanya Printed in the Heart of Khan Yunis] ''Anash.org'', January 2024.</ref>

== Structure ==
The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' lists the five parts of the book as follows:<ref name="EJ" /><ref name="Sefaria">[[Sefaria]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya Tanya] ''Sefaria Library'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
* '''''Sefer shel Beinonim''''' / ''Likkutei Amarim'' ("The Book of the Intermediates"), 53 chapters. The psychological and devotional core of the work.
* '''''Sha'ar ha-Yiḥud ve-ha-Emunah''''' ("The Gate of Unity and Faith"), called ''Ḥinukh Katan'' in the first edition. On divine unity and the continuous creation of the world.
* '''''Iggeret ha-Teshuvah''''' ("Epistle on Repentance"), also called ''Tanya Katan''.
* '''''Iggeret ha-Kodesh''''' ("Holy Epistle"), pastoral letters published in 1814.
* '''''Kuntres Aḥaron''''' ("Final Tract"), Shklov 1814.

== Core teachings ==
=== Two souls ===
''Likkutei Amarim'' teaches that every Jew has two souls. One "originates in the ''kelipah'' and ''sitra achara''". It is "clothed in the blood of a human being, giving life to the body", and is the source of both natural virtues and vices. The second is a "divine soul".<ref name="Ch1" /> In the Jew the first, "animal", soul is said to derive from ''kelipat nogah'', a husk "which also contains good".<ref name="Ch1" /> According to Balk, Shneur Zalman holds that the Jewish soul is "literally a part of God and the Divine essence" (''ḥelek Elokah mima'al mamesh'').<ref name="Balk" />

=== The ''beinoni'' ===
YIVO identifies the book's "main innovation" as the distinction between the ''tzaddik'', who "has completely purified his soul from evil", and the ''beinoni'', or "middling" person.<ref name="YIVO" /> The ''beinoni'' still feels evil impulses but never acts on them in thought, speech or deed. The subtitle ''Sefer shel Beinonim'' reflects the book's address to "the average Jew".<ref name="WhyTanya" />

=== Mind over heart ===
The name Chabad (ChaBaD) is an acronym of three intellectual faculties: ''ḥokhmah'' (wisdom), ''binah'' (understanding) and ''da'at'' (knowledge). In the ''Tanya'' these faculties come first and are meant to govern the emotions. [[Rachel Elior]] describes the system's "essential innovation" as a religious outlook that "concentrated upon perceiving the divinity: its essence, its nature, the stages of its manifestation", a conception that "generated a profound transformation of religious worship and was the cause of great controversy throughout the Jewish world".<ref name="Elior">[[Rachel Elior]], [https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Paradoxical-Ascent-to-God The Paradoxical Ascent to God: The Kabbalistic Theosophy of Habad Hasidism] (trans. Jeffrey M. Green), Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.</ref>

=== ''Bittul'' (self-nullification) ===
[[Naftali Loewenthal]] identifies ''bitul'' (self-abnegation) as the central esoteric concept of the second Rebbe, [[Dovber Schneuri]], who developed his father's system. He also argues that the early Chabad school was distinguished by a "communication ethos encouraging the transmission of esoteric [teachings] to the broad reaches of the Jewish world".<ref name="Loewenthal">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], [https://www.bibliovault.org/BV.book.epl?ISBN=9780226490458 Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School] Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.</ref>

== Intellectual context ==
=== Lurianic Kabbalah ===
YIVO describes the ''Tanya'' as "anchored in the doctrines of divinity and the soul taught by Lurianic Kabbalah", the system of Isaac Luria (1534–1572) of Safed.<ref name="YIVO" /> The key passage on the nations explicitly cites Ḥayyim Vital's ''Etz Ḥayyim'' (Portal 49, chapter 3) as its authority.<ref name="Ch1" /> The book's language of ''kelipot'' (husks) and divine sparks is taken from the Lurianic tradition.

=== Talmudic sources ===
The book takes its name from its opening word, which introduces a teaching from the Babylonian Talmud (tractate Niddah) on the oath administered to the soul before birth, "be righteous and be not wicked".<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /><ref name="WhyTanya" /> The passage on the nations relies on the Babylonian Talmud's reading (Bava Batra 10b) of Proverbs 14:34, "the kindness of the nations is sin", which the ''Tanya'' explains as charity done "only for their self-glorification".<ref name="Ch1" /><ref name="JC2008">Dan Rickman and Yitzchak Schochet, [https://collive.com/is-the-tanya-really-racist/ Is the Tanya Really Racist?] (paired op-eds first published in the ''[[Jewish Chronicle]]''), reproduced by ''COLlive'', 30 October 2008.</ref>


=== Chabad compared with other Hasidic, Haredi and Litvish currents ===
The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' records that the book was "criticized adversely by both ''maskilim'' and ''Mitnaggedim''", and even by the Hasidic leader Abraham of Kalisk.<ref name="EJ" /> Loewenthal argues that, faced with modernity, most traditional Jewish communities either secularised or retreated "into enclave religiosity". Chabad, by "stressing communication", took a third path, and he presents this as the root of its later outreach.<ref name="Loewenthal" /> Etkes devotes chapters to Chabad's "front line against the Mitnagdim" and to the founder's conflict with Abraham of Kalisk.<ref name="Etkes" /> Within the Hasidic world, Chabad's stress on intellect and on systematic study of a single text set it apart from courts centred on the charisma of the ''tzaddik''.<ref name="EJ" /><ref name="Elior" />

== Teachings on non-Jews ==
=== The text ===
The doctrine is set out in the opening chapters of ''Likkutei Amarim'' and depends on its two-soul scheme.

'''Chapter 1: the animal soul (''nefesh ha-behamit'').''' Every Jew has a soul that "originates in the ''kelipah'' and ''sitra achara''" (the "other side"). In Jews this soul "is derived from ''kelipat nogah'', which also contains good". The Kehot translation then continues:<ref name="SefariaCh1">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.1 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 1] (Hebrew text and English translation by Nissan Mindel, [[Kehot Publication Society]]), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
<blockquote>"The souls of the nations of the world, however, emanate from the other, unclean ''kelipot'' which contain no good whatsoever, as is written in ''Etz Chaim'', Portal 49, ch. 3, that all the good that the nations do is done from selfish motives. So the Gemara [Bava Batra 10b] comments on the verse, 'The kindness of the nations is sin' [Proverbs 14:34]—that all the charity and kindness done by the nations of the world is only for their own self-glorification…"</blockquote>

'''Chapter 2: the divine soul (''nefesh ha-elokit'').''' "The second soul of a Jew is truly a part of G‑d above", derived "from His thought and wisdom" in the way that "a child is derived from his father's brain".<ref name="SefariaCh2">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.2 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 2] (Kehot translation), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The Hebrew phrase ''ḥelek Eloah mi-ma'al mamash'' ("literally a part of God above") is the basis of the claim that the Jewish soul is different in kind, not merely in degree.<ref name="Balk" />

'''Chapter 6: the three impure ''kelipot''.''' The ''kelipot'' are divided into two grades. The lower grade consists of "the three ''kelipot'' which are altogether unclean and evil, containing no good whatsoever". The text then states:<ref name="SefariaCh6">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.6 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 6] (Kehot translation), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
<blockquote>"From them flow and derive the souls of all the nations of the world, and the existence of their bodies, and also the souls of all living creatures that are unclean and unfit for consumption… as well as the existence and vitality of all forbidden food in the vegetable kingdom…"</blockquote>

'''Chapter 19.''' Holiness is defined as self-nullification before God. It is "the very opposite of the ''kelipah'' and ''sitra achara'', from which are derived the souls of the nations of the world who act for their own sake and say, 'Give, give' and 'Feed me'… [wishing] to be an independent entity". For this reason, the chapter continues, "they are called 'dead'".<ref name="SefariaCh19">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.19 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 19] (Hebrew text, Kehot), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The same chapter, however, applies the "dead" label to "the wicked and transgressors of Israel" as well, until they are tested and willing to sanctify God's name.<ref name="SefariaCh19" />

=== Two printed versions of chapter 1 ===
The Hebrew of the key sentence differs between editions:
* The vocalised Kehot text on [[Sefaria]] reads ''nafshot '''umot ha-olam''''' ("the souls of the '''nations of the world'''") and, in the next clause, ''ha-umot'' ("the nations").<ref name="SefariaCh1" />
* The unvocalised text reproduced by the French Orthodox site Torah-Box reads ''nafshot '''umot ovdei gilulim''''' ("the souls of the '''idol-worshipping nations'''") and ''ha-umot ovdei gilulim'' in the next clause.<ref name="TorahBox">Torah-Box, [https://www.torah-box.com/surtexte/tanya/likoutey-amarim_4209/chapitre-1_3773.html Tanya – Likoutey Amarim, chapitre 1] ''Torah-Box'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

[[Koren Publishers Jerusalem|Koren]]'s Steinsaltz edition states that, "by specific directive from the Lubavitcher Rebbe", it reproduces the Hebrew "as it was printed in the Vilna edition in 1900".<ref name="Koren">[[Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz|Adin Steinsaltz]], [https://korenpub.co.il/cdn/shop/files/9781592645855.pdf Opening the Tanya / Tanya vol. 1 (Publisher's Preface)] Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, sample PDF, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> Substituting narrower terms such as "idolaters" or "star-worshippers" for words meaning gentiles in general was a standard practice of the censors who supervised Hebrew printing in Catholic Europe and the Russian Empire.<ref name="SederOlam">Seder Olam, [https://seder-olam.com/en/n/tzenzura-sfarim/ The censorship of Hebrew books] ''Seder Olam'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> An anonymous reader's comment under the 2008 ''Jewish Chronicle'' exchange claimed the narrower wording was "merely the result of censorship by the Russian authorities".<ref name="JC2008" />

This matters because Chabad apologists rely on the narrower reading. Rabbi Yitzchok Schochet, for example, argued that the passage "speaks of idol-worshippers devoid of revealed religion".<ref name="JC2008" />

=== Critics ===
'''Orthodox and rabbinic critics'''
* Hanan Balk (''Ḥakirah'', 2013) called the doctrine "uncomfortable and racially charged" and an "inconvenient truth". He argued that it "was undoubtedly… the prominent position maintained by authorities of Jewish thought" and that its familiarity among Jews today comes mainly from "the Ḥabad movement, due to its outreach efforts". He went on to search the tradition for an "equally authentic" alternative view.<ref name="Balk" />
* [[Menachem Kellner]], professor emeritus of Jewish thought at the [[University of Haifa]], writes that the "particularism of Halevi, Zohar, and Maharal finds a muted but undeniable expression in Chabad writings", and that the ''Tanya'' "maintains that Gentiles, because of the nature of their souls, cannot aspire to the level of holiness to which Jews can".<ref name="KellnerJI">[[Menachem Kellner]], [https://www.jewishideas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem Orthodoxy and "The Gentile Problem"] ''jewishideas.org'', [[Institute for Jewish Ideas and Ideals]], accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> He sets this against [[Maimonides]], who "denies that there is any ontological difference between Jew and Gentile". Had Maimonides been "the author of the Tanya", Kellner writes, the Jew–Gentile distinction would have been "part of the very fabric of the universe".<ref name="KellnerTrue">[[Menachem Kellner]], [https://library.yctorah.org/files/2016/07/Kellner-III-with-Rapoport-response-revision6.pdf Maimonides' "True Religion"] ''Meorot'', Yeshivat Chovevei Torah, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
* Rabbi Assaf Bednarsh of [[Yeshivat Har Etzion]] summarises the ''Tanya'' view this way: the gentile soul "is purely animalistic and not Godly", so that "a gentile is not merely a lower form of life, but is essentially and irredeemably evil". He notes the problem this creates for the theology of conversion.<ref name="Bednarsh">Assaf Bednarsh, [https://etzion.org.il/en/philosophy/issues-jewish-thought/issues-mussar-and-faith/jews-and-gentiles Jews and Gentiles] ''Torat Har Etzion'', [[Yeshivat Har Etzion]], 9 February 2020.</ref>

'''Academic critics'''
* [[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]] identify the Lurianic doctrine as the root of contemporary Jewish fundamentalism: "one of the basic tenets of the Lurianic Cabbala is the absolute superiority of the Jewish soul and body over the non-Jewish soul and body".<ref name="ShahakMez">[[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], [https://www.plutobooks.com/product/jewish-fundamentalism-in-israel/ Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel] London: Pluto Press, 1999 (new edition 2004); quotation as given in [https://www.wrmea.org/2000-march/book-review-jewish-fundamentalism-in-israel.html Book Review: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel] ''Washington Report on Middle East Affairs'', March 2000.</ref>
* [[Elliot R. Wolfson]] argues that Schneerson built "a fundamentalist ideology" that could also subvert "the social-anthropological division between Jew and Gentile". He devotes a chapter, "Apocalyptic crossing: beyond the (non)Jewish other", to the question.<ref name="Wolfson">[[Elliot R. Wolfson]], [https://cup.columbia.edu/book/open-secret/9780231146302/ Open Secret: Postmessianic Messianism and the Mystical Revision of Menahem Mendel Schneerson] New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.</ref>
* [[Rachel Elior]] notes that the ''Tanya'''s theology "was the cause of great controversy throughout the Jewish world".<ref name="Elior" />

'''Communal and journalistic critics'''
* Dan Rickman, a member of [[Hampstead Garden Suburb Synagogue]], objected to a ''Tanya'' course there in 2008 and the synagogue dropped it. Writing in the ''[[Jewish Chronicle]]'', he argued that "within the Tanya there is no direct counter-text", that "the view presented is that non-Jews are a different and lesser type of human being than Jews", and he asked: "is 'our' racism better than 'their' racism?"<ref name="JC2008" />
* Joe Mintz, writing in the same paper a month earlier, called the text "stark".<ref name="JC2008" />


=== Political implications ===
Kellner describes ''[[Torat Hamelekh]]'' (2009) by Rabbis [[Yitzhak Shapira]] and [[Yosef Elitzur]] of [[Od Yosef Chai Yeshiva]] in [[Yitzhar]] as "a truly blood-thirsty contemporary expression of the view that Jews are ontologically distinct from and profoundly superior in every fashion to Gentiles". He notes that it carried an approbation from the Chabad-affiliated kabbalist [[Yitzhak Ginsburgh]], "author of ''Barukh haGever'', a booklet memorializing [[Baruch Goldstein]]".<ref name="KellnerJI" /><ref name="KellnerTrad">[[Menachem Kellner]], [https://traditiononline.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Kellner.pdf Today's Perplexed: Between Maimonidean Promise and Peril] ''Tradition'', 2021, Vol. 53(4).</ref> Kellner places ''Torat Hamelekh'' within the same particularist current to which he assigns the ''Tanya''. He does not claim that the book quotes the ''Tanya'' directly.<ref name="KellnerJI" />

Shahak and Mezvinsky link the soul doctrine to the settler movement in the occupied West Bank.<ref name="ShahakMez" />

=== Chabad counter-arguments ===
* '''Scope.''' Schochet argued that the passage refers to idolaters, that "the 'pious of the nations'… are excluded", and that critics misunderstand the kabbalistic term "impure shells": "in Judaism… there is no such thing of something devoid of Divinity".<ref name="JC2008" />
* '''Universal divine spark.''' Schneerson wrote that the ''kelipot'' do not lack "a spark [of G‑dliness] at all. For without a spark of good, it is impossible for any entity to exist".<ref name="Letter95">[[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], [https://www.chabad.org/therebbe/letters/default_cdo/aid/5920878/jewish/An-explanation-of-the-statement-in-Tanya-ch-1-that-the-souls-of-the-gentiles-do-not-possess-any-good.htm An explanation of the statement in Tanya, ch. 1, that the souls of the gentiles do not possess any good (Letter No. 95)] ''Chabad.org''; also in [https://sichos-in-english.org/books/letters-rebbe-1/53.htm I Will Write It In Their Hearts, Vol. 1] ''Sichos in English''.</ref>
* '''Chosenness is mainstream.''' Schochet argued that critics "proclaim this distinction… at the conclusion of every Sabbath" in the ''Havdalah'' blessing, and that the Jewish "additional soul" exists to carry out "their mission to be a Divine beacon to the nations".<ref name="JC2008" />
* '''Noahide outreach.''' Rickman himself acknowledged that "the late Rebbe had campaigned for non-Jews to keep the seven Noachide laws". The campaign is cited as evidence that Chabad does not regard non-Jews as beyond moral worth.<ref name="JC2008" />

== How successive Rebbes presented the passage ==
In what follows, '''text''' means the printed words of the ''Tanya'', '''translation''' means renderings into other languages, and '''exegesis''' means interpretation that leaves the text as it is.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Reinterpretations of ''Tanya'' ch. 1 on non-Jewish souls
! Who / when !! What was done !! Type !! Practical effect !! Source
|-
| [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], 1796–1814 || Original statement. The nations' souls derive from the three impure ''kelipot'' "which contain no good whatsoever" (ch. 1, ch. 6). || Text || The base doctrine. || <ref name="SefariaCh1" /><ref name="SefariaCh6" />
|-
| Uncertain editions (Russian Empire?) || Two Hebrew readings circulate: "nations of the world" and "idol-worshipping nations". || Text (variant) || The narrower reading lets apologists confine the passage to idolaters. Which reading came first is not established. || <ref name="SefariaCh1" /><ref name="TorahBox" /><ref name="Koren" />
|-
| [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Tzemach Tzedek]] (3rd Rebbe), ''Kitzur Tanya'' ch. 6 || Glosses "no good at all" as meaning no good "in their essence". "Through the mode of exile", the nations nevertheless contain "Divine life-energy, a spark". || Exegesis || Text unchanged. The absolute statement becomes a claim about essence, not existence. || <ref name="Letter95" />
|-
| [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] (7th Rebbe), Letter No. 95 || Answers a correspondent who points to the Noahide laws and the "pious gentiles". He cites the Tzemach Tzedek and argues that without a spark "it is impossible for any entity to exist". || Exegesis || Text unchanged. Gentiles are given a sustaining but hidden ("swallowed up") spark. || <ref name="Letter95" />
|-
| Schneerson, reply on an English translation (published in ''Letters from the Rebbe'', 1997, pp. 106–7) || Asked whether an English translation should '''omit''' the passage for fear of antisemitism, he refused. Citing the world's indifference to the Nazi genocide, he wrote that "the words of the Alter Rebbe may even be an understatement". || Translation policy (no softening) || The text was deliberately '''not''' cut or softened in translation. || <ref name="Balk" />
|-
| Schneerson, talk with Hillel students, 7 March 1960 || "A non-Jew and every created thing does have a Divine spark, but it is not the same kind of Divine spark that a Jew has." || Exegesis || A hierarchy of souls is affirmed. Balk reads it as "the same hierarchical theory of souls found in the Tanya". || <ref name="Balk" />
|-
| Kehot English edition / ''Lessons in Tanya'' (Wineberg; edited under the Rebbe) || A commentary note adds that some among the nations, "the pious ones of the nations of the world", have souls from ''kelipat nogah''. || Commentary added to the translation || Text unchanged, but readers meet the qualification on the same page. || <ref name="Ch1" />
|-
| Chabad apologists, e.g. Schochet (2008) || Read the passage as referring to "idol-worshippers devoid of revealed religion". || Exegesis, resting on a textual variant || Narrows who is covered. || <ref name="JC2008" />
|}

'''In summary:''' the sources verified here document '''no deliberate rewording of the ''Tanya'' by any Rebbe'''. The seventh Rebbe expressly '''refused''' to cut or soften the passage in English. What did change over time was '''exegesis''' (the Tzemach Tzedek's "in their essence" gloss and Schneerson's "spark" teaching) and '''explanatory apparatus''' (the Kehot note on the "pious of the nations"). There is also a '''textual variant''' ("nations of the world" against "idol-worshipping nations") whose origin, whether the censor or the author, has not been established from a reliable bibliographic source.<ref name="Letter95" /><ref name="Balk" /><ref name="Ch1" /><ref name="TorahBox" />


== Study and outreach ==
Chabad Hasidim study the ''Tanya'' daily.<ref name="EJ" /> [[Chabad.org]] publishes ''Lessons in Tanya'', a five-volume commentary by Rabbi Yosef Wineberg, "translated from Yiddish by Rabbi Levy Wineberg and Rabbi Sholom B. Wineberg", alongside videos and alternative translations.<ref name="Ch1" /> The full text is also freely available on [[Sefaria]].<ref name="Sefaria" /> Loewenthal and Balk both connect the book's reach to Chabad's outreach strategy: the doctrine's familiarity today owes most to "the Ḥabad movement, due to its outreach efforts".<ref name="Balk" /><ref name="Loewenthal" />

== Messianism ==
Wolfson describes Schneerson as "a radical messianic visionary who promoted a conservative political agenda". He argues that the Rebbe's teaching, rooted in the ''Tanya'' and later Chabad thought, culminated in a vision of redemption beyond "all duality".<ref name="Wolfson" /> Galina Zelenina links the "ardent messianism" of the "Lubavitch mentality" to the movement's political strategy in post-Soviet Russia.<ref name="Zelenina">[[Galina Zelenina]], [https://archive.jpr.org.uk/object-rus88 "Our Community is the Coolest in the World": Chabad and Jewish Nation-Building in Contemporary Russia] ''Contemporary Jewry'', 2018, pp. 1–31.</ref> The printing campaign, with editions carried into Lebanon in 1982 and into Gaza in 2024, is presented by Chabad as one of the Rebbe's "most 'wondrous'" campaigns.<ref name="Derher" /><ref name="ChabadGaza" />

== Reception and scholarship ==
* [[Immanuel Etkes]], ''Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liady: The Origins of Chabad Hasidism'' (2014/15): the leading critical biography, drawing on Russian interrogation records.<ref name="Etkes" />
* [[Rachel Elior]], ''The Paradoxical Ascent to God'' (1993): Chabad's kabbalistic theosophy.<ref name="Elior" />
* [[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990): the first two generations of the Chabad school.<ref name="Loewenthal" />
* Roman A. Foxbrunner, ''Habad: The Hasidism of R. Shneur Zalman of Lyady'' (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992).<ref name="Foxbrunner">Roman A. Foxbrunner, ''Habad: The Hasidism of R. Shneur Zalman of Lyady'', Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992; cited in [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ajs-review/article/abs/setting-times-for-torah-study-in-r-shneur-zalman-of-liadys-thought/B603E0E038EA2B56B65919C0611F364B Setting Times for Torah Study in R. Shneur Zalman of Liady's Thought] ''AJS Review'', Cambridge University Press.</ref>
* [[Elliot R. Wolfson]], ''Open Secret'' (2009): the seventh Rebbe's mystical and messianic revision of Chabad thought.<ref name="Wolfson" />

== See also ==
* [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]]
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]]
* [[Kehot Publication Society]]
* [[Torat Hamelekh]]
* [[Yitzhak Ginsburgh]]
* [[Chabad in occupied Palestine]]
* [[Israel Shahak]]

== External links ==
* [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya Tanya, full text] at [[Sefaria]]
* [https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/986796/jewish/Lessons-in-Tanya.htm Lessons in Tanya] at [[Chabad.org]]
* [https://worldwidetanya.com/ Mivtza Tanya], the Chabad printing-campaign website

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Chabad]]
[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Category:Hasidic texts]]
[[Category:1796 books]]
[[Category:Religious philosophical literature]]
[[Category:Controversial books]]

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Menachem Mendel Schneerson

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David: Created page with "{{Chabad sidebar}} ''For the third Chabad Rebbe of the same name, see Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek).'' {{short description|'''Seventh Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavi..."

{{Chabad sidebar}}
''For the third Chabad Rebbe of the same name, see [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)]].''
{{short description|'''Seventh Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch (1902–1994), who built the movement into a global network and became the focus of a messianic campaign'''}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Menachem Mendel Schneerson
| birth_date = 14 April 1902 (11 Nissan 5662)
| birth_place = Nikolaev, [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = 12 June 1994 (3 Tammuz 5754)
| death_place = Beth Israel Medical Center, Manhattan, New York
| resting_place = Ohel, Montefiore Cemetery, Queens, New York
| nationality = American (formerly Russian)
| education = University of Berlin; Sorbonne, Paris
| known_for = Seventh Rebbe of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]], 1950/51–1994
| spouse = Chaya Mushka Schneerson (m. 1928; d. 1988)
| predecessor = [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]
}}

'''Menachem Mendel Schneerson''' (1902–1994), known to his followers as "the Rebbe", was the seventh and last leader of the [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] Hasidic dynasty. He led it from his father-in-law's death in 1950 until his own in 1994.<ref name="ChabadBio">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/therebbe/article_cdo/aid/244372/jewish/The-Rebbe-A-Brief-Biography.htm The Rebbe: A Brief Biography] ''Chabad.org'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> According to the ''[[New York Times]]'', he was a "Russian-born, Sorbonne-educated scholar who took an insular Hasidic group that almost came to an end with the Holocaust and turned it into one of the most influential and controversial forces in world Jewry".<ref name="NYTObit">Ari L. Goldman, [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/13/nyregion/rabbi-schneerson-led-a-small-hasidic-sect-to-world-prominence.html Rabbi Schneerson Led A Small Hasidic Sect To World Prominence] ''The New York Times'', 13 June 1994.</ref>

From [[770 Eastern Parkway]] in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, he built a worldwide network of emissaries (''shluchim'') and Chabad Houses. He campaigned to promote the Seven Noahide Laws among non-Jews, which earned him repeated tributes from US presidents and a posthumous [[Congressional Gold Medal]].<ref name="PL103457">[[United States Congress]], [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-103hr4497enr/html/BILLS-103hr4497enr.htm H.R. 4497: An Act to award a congressional gold medal to Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson] Public Law 103‑457, 2 November 1994, 108 Stat. 4799.</ref> He never visited Israel, but he wielded considerable influence in Israeli politics, opposing territorial withdrawal and backing the "Who is a Jew" amendment.<ref name="JTA1990">''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', [https://www.jta.org/archive/rebbes-influence-blamed-for-labors-failure-to-form-governing-coalition Rebbe's Influence Blamed for Labor's Failure to Form Governing Coalition] ''JTA'', 1990.</ref>

His final years were dominated by an intense messianic campaign among his followers, many of whom proclaimed him the Messiah. Some still do, three decades after his death. The Orthodox historian [[David Berger]] called this "a revolutionary development" that had "thoroughly undermined" a pillar of Judaism.<ref name="BergerComm">[[David Berger]], [https://www.commentary.org/articles/david-berger/the-rebbe-the-jews-and-the-messiah/ The Rebbe, the Jews, and the Messiah] ''Commentary'', September 2001.</ref>

== Early life ==
Schneerson was born on 11 Nissan 1902 in Nikolaev in southern Russia (now Mykolaiv, Ukraine). His father was the kabbalist Rabbi Levi Yitzchak Schneerson and his mother Chana Schneerson. He was named after his ancestor, the third Rebbe, [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Menachem Mendel of Lubavitch]].<ref name="ChabadBio" /> Chabad's official biography records that his father was later sent into internal exile "by the Soviets to a remote village in Asian Russia".<ref name="ChabadBio" /> UPI gave his civil date of birth as 14 April 1902.<ref name="UPI1994">''United Press International'', [https://www.upi.com/Archives/1994/06/12/Lubavitcher-leader-dead-at-age-92/4962771393600/ Lubavitcher leader dead at age 92] ''UPI Archives'', 12 June 1994.</ref>

== Berlin and Paris ==
In 1928, in Warsaw, Schneerson married Chaya Mushka, daughter of the sixth Rebbe, [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]. In 1927 she had accompanied her father into his "forced exile to Kostroma".<ref name="ChabadBio" /> He then "studied in the University of Berlin and then at the Sorbonne in Paris".<ref name="ChabadBio" /><ref name="NYTObit" /> [[Samuel Heilman]] and [[Menachem Friedman]]'s academic biography covers these years in the chapters "Coming of Age in a Time of Transition" and "Entering the Court of Lubavitch".<ref name="HeilmanFriedman">[[Samuel C. Heilman]] and [[Menachem M. Friedman]], [https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691154428/the-rebbe The Rebbe: The Life and Afterlife of Menachem Mendel Schneerson] Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010.</ref>


== Escape to the United States, 1941 ==
Schneerson and his wife escaped occupied France and arrived in New York on 23 June 1941.<ref name="ChabadBio" /> The 1994 Act of Congress describes him as "a refugee first from Stalinist Russia and then from Nazi Germany".<ref name="PL103457" /> After his arrival he was put in charge of three central Lubavitch organisations: [[Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch]] (education), the [[Kehot Publication Society]] and the social-services agency Machne Israel.<ref name="ChabadBio" />

== Succession, 1950–51 ==
Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn died in 1950. Chabad says his son-in-law then "reluctantly ascended to the leadership of the Lubavitch movement".<ref name="ChabadBio" /> UPI dates his leadership from 1950, "nine years after coming to Brooklyn".<ref name="UPI1994" /> He formally accepted the role in 1951.<ref name="BergerComm" />


== Outreach: ''shlichus'' and the ''mivtzoim'' ==
Under Schneerson, "Lubavitch centers and Chabad Houses were opened in dozens of cities and university campuses around the world".<ref name="ChabadBio" /> Writing in 2001, Berger cited a journalist "basing himself on official sources" who reported "more than 2,600 institutions throughout the world, with 3,700 married couples serving as emissaries". He added that "Even if the numbers are exaggerated, there is no question that the worldwide Chabad presence continues to grow at a stunning rate".<ref name="BergerComm" /> Berger also reported claims that "Chabad rabbis constitute 50 percent of the rabbinate in England" and that 13 of Sydney's 26 synagogues were led by Chabad rabbis.<ref name="BergerComm" /> Sue Fishkoff's ''The Rebbe's Army'' (2003) gives a journalistic account of the emissary system.<ref name="Fishkoff">[[Sue Fishkoff]], ''The Rebbe's Army: Inside the World of Chabad-Lubavitch'', New York: Schocken Books, 2003.</ref> One of the most visible campaigns was the drive to print the ''[[Tanya]]'' in every place where Jews live, discussed on that page.

== The Noahide campaign and American politics ==
Schneerson urged non-Jews to observe the Seven Noahide Laws, and US presidents took up the theme. In Proclamation 4921 (3 April 1982), [[Ronald Reagan]] declared a "National Day of Reflection" for the Rebbe's 80th birthday. The proclamation praised the Lubavitch movement as "one shining example for people of all faiths of what education should be" and said the Rebbe "has provided a vivid example of the eternal validity of the Seven Noahide Laws".<ref name="Reagan1982">[[Ronald Reagan]], [https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/proclamation-4921-national-day-reflection Proclamation 4921 – National Day of Reflection] Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, 3 April 1982.</ref> In 1985 Congress (H.J.Res. 186) designated his birthday "Education Day, U.S.A.". Reagan's proclamation stated that "Very few Americans have done more to promote these ethical values" and tied them to "their roots in the Seven Noahide Laws".<ref name="Reagan1985">[[Ronald Reagan]], [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-5317-education-day-usa-1985 Proclamation 5317 – Education Day, U.S.A., 1985] ''The American Presidency Project'', 4 April 1985.</ref> By 1994 the Act of Congress noted that his birthday had been marked "in each of the last 16 years as 'Education and Sharing Day, U.S.A.'".<ref name="PL103457" />


== Israel ==
=== Territorial maximalism ===
Although he never visited Israel, Schneerson insisted that no territory captured in 1967 be given up. In correspondence with the British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], he wrote:<ref name="Jakobovits">[[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], [https://www.sichos-in-english.org/books/when-silence-is-a-sin/15.htm Extracts from Correspondence Between the Lubavitcher Rebbe… and Chief Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits Regarding the Halachic Position of the Areas Liberated after the Six-Day and Yom Kippur Wars] in ''When Silence is a Sin'', Appendix D, ''Sichos in English''.</ref>
<blockquote>"I am completely and unequivocally opposed to the surrender of any of the liberated areas currently under negotiation, such as Yehudah and Shomron, the Golan, etc., for the simple reason, and only reason, that surrendering any part of them would contravene a clear ruling found in Shulchan Aruch…"</blockquote>
He presented the position as a matter of ''pikuach nefesh'' (saving life), "not" of "the sanctity of Eretz Yisrael, or with days of Moshiach".<ref name="Jakobovits" /> A Chabad publication records that during the [[Camp David Accords|Camp David]] negotiations he "expressed the strongest protest". It calls the return of Sinai to Egypt "a grave and tragic mistake" and attacks the "land for peace" concept as applied to "Yehudah and Shomron" (the West Bank).<ref name="PeaceLand">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/therebbe/article_cdo/aid/2511905/jewish/Peace-in-the-Land.htm Peace in the Land] ''Chabad.org'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> JTA reported that his "decades-long position has been that Israel should not surrender 'one inch' of territory".<ref name="JTA1990" />

=== Elections, coalitions and "Who is a Jew" ===
* '''1988.''' The ''Christian Science Monitor'' reported that in the last two weeks of the September 1988 campaign "a weakened Agudat Israel party turned to the rebbe for support. With his endorsement they won an unexpected five seats".<ref name="CSM1990">''Christian Science Monitor'', [https://www.csmonitor.com/1990/0503/alub.html How a Rabbi in US Influences Israeli Politics] ''CSMonitor.com'', 3 May 1990.</ref> JTA wrote that "The Chabad movement, headed by Lubavitcher Rebbe Menachem Schneerson… has effectively taken control of Agudat Yisrael in Israel". Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]] had promised the ultra-Orthodox parties "swift passage" of the "Who is a Jew" amendment to the Law of Return, which would have refused recognition to non-Orthodox conversions.<ref name="JTA1988">''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', [https://www.jta.org/archive/support-for-who-is-a-jew-wavering-in-likud-and-nrp Support for 'Who Is a Jew' Wavering in Likud and NRP] ''JTA'', 24 November 1988.</ref> The proposal provoked a mass lobbying effort by American Jewish leaders.<ref name="NYT1988">Ari L. Goldman, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/03/world/who-is-a-jew-debate-in-israel-attracts-leading-figures-of-us-judaism.html 'Who Is a Jew?' Debate in Israel Attracts Leading Figures of U.S. Judaism] ''The New York Times'', 3 December 1988.</ref>
* '''1990.''' Two Agudat Yisrael Knesset members withdrew from [[Shimon Peres]]'s planned Labor coalition "after learning he opposed Labor's stance favoring talks with the Palestinians to swap land for peace".<ref name="CSM1990" /> Reform leader Rabbi Alexander Schindler said: "Rabbi Schneerson, sitting in his study on (Brooklyn's) Eastern Parkway, decided that Agudat Yisrael would not participate in the proposed government."<ref name="JTA1990" />

=== Israeli politicians ===
The Jewish News Syndicate notes that "Israeli leaders of all stripes continually sought out his advice and blessing". These included [[Benjamin Netanyahu]], filmed receiving a blessing and political advice in 1988, and [[Ariel Sharon]], whom the Rebbe "convinced… to remain" in the army.<ref name="JNS">''Jewish News Syndicate'', [https://www.jns.org/feature/rabbi-menachem-mendel-schneerson-1902-1994 Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902–1994)] ''JNS'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>


== Russia and the Soviet Union ==
Schneerson's family background, his father's Soviet exile and his father-in-law's 1927 exile all tied him to the Soviet experience.<ref name="ChabadBio" /> Berger describes the Chabad underground's "heroic stand, fought for decades in lonely isolation… against a totalitarian Soviet regime".<ref name="BergerComm" />

=== The library case ===
After his death, Chabad's legal arm, [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad]], sued Russia in the United States for the return of the "Schneerson Collection". The collection consists of a library of "12,000 books and manuscripts the Soviets seized between 1917 and 1925" and an archive of "25,000 pages" seized by the Nazis and later by Soviet forces. On 16 January 2013 Chief Judge Royce Lamberth held Russia in civil contempt and imposed sanctions of "$50,000 per day".<ref name="Lamberth2013">United States District Court for the District of Columbia, [http://www.dcoxfiles.com/chabadsanctionsopinion.pdf Agudas Chasidei Chabad of United States v. Russian Federation, Civ. No. 05‑1548 (RCL), Memorandum Opinion] 16 January 2013 (915 F. Supp. 2d 148).</ref><ref name="Interim2014">Agudas Chasidei Chabad of United States, [http://www.dcoxfiles.com/chabadmotinterimjudg.pdf Motion for Entry of Interim Judgment ($14,750,000)] US District Court for the District of Columbia, January 2014.</ref> See [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad v. Russian Federation]].

=== Post-Soviet legacy ===
Berger records that 17 of the most important Chabad emissaries in the former Soviet Union, among them the new chief rabbi [[Berel Lazar]], had signed a 1997 ruling that Jews must accept Schneerson's messiahship.<ref name="BergerComm" /> On the Kremlin alliance of Lazar's [[Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia]], see Galina Zelenina.<ref name="Zelenina">[[Galina Zelenina]], [https://archive.jpr.org.uk/object-rus88 "Our Community is the Coolest in the World": Chabad and Jewish Nation-Building in Contemporary Russia] ''Contemporary Jewry'', 2018, pp. 1–31.</ref>

== Messianism ==
Berger gives a detailed account of how Schneerson presented the coming of the Messiah. According to Berger, he "unqualifiedly proclaimed the imminence of the redemption" and "encouraged the cry, 'We want moshiah now!'". He "strongly implied that he would be the redeemer", for example by teaching that "the messiah's name was Menachem" and that the Third Temple would first appear next to 770 Eastern Parkway.<ref name="BergerComm" /> Berger adds that "the message was not unequivocal". In his last years Schneerson "tolerated and even appears to have encouraged" the singing of ''Yechi Adoneinu'' ("May our Master, Teacher, and Rabbi the King Messiah live forever"), while at other times he criticised messianist publications.<ref name="BergerComm" /> Heilman and Friedman title a chapter "From Resurrection to Death: We Want Moshiach Now".<ref name="HeilmanFriedman" /> [[Elliot R. Wolfson]] calls him "a radical messianic visionary who promoted a conservative political agenda".<ref name="Wolfson">[[Elliot R. Wolfson]], [https://cup.columbia.edu/book/open-secret/9780231146302/ Open Secret: Postmessianic Messianism and the Mystical Revision of Menahem Mendel Schneerson] New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.</ref>

== Crown Heights, 1991 ==
In August 1991 a car in the Rebbe's motorcade struck and killed seven-year-old Gavin Cato. Days of violence between Black and Jewish residents followed, during which the Australian Jewish student Yankel Rosenbaum was fatally stabbed.<ref name="NYT1991">''The New York Times'', [https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/21/nyregion/a-boy-s-death-ignites-clashes-in-crown-heights.html A Boy's Death Ignites Clashes in Crown Heights] ''The New York Times'', 21 August 1991.</ref><ref name="JTA1991">''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', [https://www.jta.org/archive/fatal-brooklyn-traffic-accident-sparks-widespread-racial-violence Fatal Brooklyn Traffic Accident Sparks Widespread Racial Violence] ''JTA'', August 1991.</ref> A state inquiry led by Richard Girgenti, commissioned by Governor [[Mario Cuomo]], found Mayor [[David Dinkins]] and the police "at fault in letting unrest escalate".<ref name="NYT1993">''The New York Times'', [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/21/us/crown-heights-report-overview-crown-heights-study-finds-dinkins-police-fault.html Crown Heights Study Finds Dinkins and Police at Fault in Letting Unrest Escalate] ''The New York Times'', 21 July 1993.</ref><ref name="Girgenti">New York State, [https://ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/report-governor-disturbances-crown-heights-assessment-citys Report to the Governor on the Disturbances in Crown Heights] (Girgenti Report), Vols I–II, 1993, ''Office of Justice Programs'' abstract.</ref> See [[Crown Heights riot]].


== Illness and death ==
On 2 March 1992, while praying at his father-in-law's grave, Schneerson suffered a stroke that "paralyzed his right side" and left him unable to speak.<ref name="ChabadBio" /> He had another stroke on 10 March 1994.<ref name="LAT1994">''Los Angeles Times'', [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-06-12-mn-3207-story.html Rabbi Schneerson, Lubavitcher Leader, Dies] ''Los Angeles Times'', 12 June 1994.</ref> He died at 1:50 a.m. on 12 June 1994 at Beth Israel Medical Center in Manhattan, aged 92.<ref name="NYTFirestone">David Firestone, [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/13/nyregion/thousands-gather-in-crown-hts-to-grieve-for-their-grand-rabbi.html Thousands Gather in Crown Hts. To Grieve for Their Grand Rabbi] ''The New York Times'', 13 June 1994.</ref> He left no children and named no successor. The ''[[Washington Post]]'' reported that "Even as his pine coffin was placed in the hearse, a panicked crowd of Lubavitch faithful chanted prayers for Schneerson to rise and reveal himself to be the Messiah".<ref name="WaPo1994">[[Laurie Goodstein]], [https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1994/06/13/death-of-lubavitcher-leader-rabbi-schneerson-stuns-followers/d22c9af8-7510-4adc-b12e-52bac6946977/ Death of Lubavitcher Leader, Rabbi Schneerson, Stuns Followers] ''The Washington Post'', 13 June 1994.</ref>

== Posthumous cult and honours ==
* '''Congressional Gold Medal.''' Public Law 103‑457 (2 November 1994) authorised a gold medal "in recognition of his outstanding and enduring contributions toward world education, morality, and acts of charity". It credited him with making Chabad's New York headquarters "a center of over 2,000 educational, social, and rehabilitative institutions".<ref name="PL103457" />
* '''The Ohel.''' His grave in Queens, next to that of his father-in-law, has become a place of pilgrimage. The ''New York Times'' reported that tens of thousands came for the 20th anniversary of his death in 2014.<ref name="NYT2014">''The New York Times'', [https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/02/nyregion/thousands-descend-on-queens-to-mourn-rabbi-menachem-mendel-schneerson.html Commemorating 20th Anniversary of Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson's Death] ''The New York Times'', 2 July 2014.</ref> Chabad reported more than 50,000 visitors in the week of the 32nd anniversary in 2026.<ref name="Ohel2026">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/news/article_cdo/aid/7402368/jewish/More-Than-50000-Visiting-Rebbes-Queens-Resting-Place-This-Week.htm More Than 50,000 Visiting Rebbe's Queens Resting Place This Week] ''Chabad.org'', 2026.</ref>
* '''Continuing messianism.''' Berger reports that "a growing number of messianists began to assert that the Rebbe never died". A 1997 ruling obliging Jews to accept his messiahship had 150 signatories by January 2000. Some messianist publications went further and spoke of him as divine, for example by substituting "Creator" for "Rabbi" in ''Yechi''.<ref name="BergerComm" />

== Controversies and critics ==
* '''Messianism.''' Berger argued that by accepting messianists as Orthodox Jews in good standing, "We award victory to Christianity in a crucial aspect of its millennial debate with Judaism". He won a 1996 [[Rabbinical Council of America]] resolution that "there is not and never has been a place in Judaism" for a messiah who dies before completing his mission.<ref name="BergerComm" /><ref name="BergerBook">[[David Berger]], [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rebbe-the-messiah-and-the-scandal-of-orthodox-indifference/1878298C11AC15172DFCE20F91C4F245 The Rebbe, the Messiah, and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference] London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2001.</ref>
* '''Haredi opposition.''' Rabbi [[Elazar Menachem Man Shach|Elazar Shach]] of Bnei Brak, the leading Lithuanian (Litvish) authority, had long-standing theological and political conflicts with Schneerson. According to the 1988 Israeli election study, Shach's circle characterised the messianist position as "blasphemy".<ref name="Arian1988">[[Asher Arian]] and Michal Shamir (eds), [https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9781000244441_A37719612/preview-9781000244441_A37719612.pdf The Elections in Israel – 1988] Boulder: Westview (reissued Routledge), preview.</ref> Berger also notes the "delegitimation of messianists" in Shach's community.<ref name="BergerComm" />
* '''Interference in Israeli politics.''' Reform and secular Israeli critics accused him of "meddling". Schindler asked: "How can a religious leader in good conscience reject the idea of moving toward peace when the young men in his own movement are exempted from military service…?"<ref name="JTA1990" />
* '''Jews and non-Jews.''' On his letters and remarks about the ''[[Tanya]]'''s doctrine of non-Jewish souls, including his refusal to soften it in English translation, see [[Tanya#Teachings on non-Jews]]. [[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]] discuss Chabad within Haredi fundamentalism.<ref name="ShahakMez">[[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], [https://www.plutobooks.com/product/jewish-fundamentalism-in-israel/ Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel] London: Pluto Press, 1999 (new ed. 2004).</ref>
* '''Crown Heights.''' See above.

== Scholarship and biographies ==
* [[Samuel C. Heilman]] and [[Menachem M. Friedman]], ''The Rebbe: The Life and Afterlife of Menachem Mendel Schneerson'' (Princeton, 2010). The first academic biography, and controversial within Chabad.<ref name="HeilmanFriedman" />
* [[Joseph Telushkin]], ''Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson, the Most Influential Rabbi in Modern History'' (Harper, 2014). A popular biography sympathetic to the movement.<ref name="Telushkin">[[Jewish Book Council]], [https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/book/rebbe-the-life-and-teachings-of-menachem-m-schneerson-the-most-influential-rabbi-in-modern Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson] ''Jewish Book Council'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
* [[Chaim Miller]], ''Turning Judaism Outward: A Biography of the Rebbe Menachem Mendel Schneerson'' (Kol Menachem, 2014). Draws on internal archives.<ref name="Miller">[[Jewish Book Council]], [https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/book/turning-judaism-outward-a-biography-of-the-rebbe-menachem-mendel-schneerson Turning Judaism Outward] ''Jewish Book Council'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
* [[David Berger]], ''The Rebbe, the Messiah, and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference'' (Littman, 2001).<ref name="BergerBook" />
* [[Elliot R. Wolfson]], ''Open Secret'' (Columbia, 2009).<ref name="Wolfson" />
* Avrum M. Ehrlich, ''The Messiah of Brooklyn'' (Ktav, 2004).<ref name="Ehrlich">Avrum M. Ehrlich, [https://ktav.com/products/the-messiah-of-brooklyn The Messiah of Brooklyn: Understanding Lubavitch Hasidism Past and Present] Jersey City: Ktav, 2004.</ref>
* [[Sue Fishkoff]], ''The Rebbe's Army'' (Schocken, 2003).<ref name="Fishkoff" />

== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)]]
* [[770 Eastern Parkway]]
* [[Agudas Chasidei Chabad]]
* [[Tanya]]
* [[Chabad in occupied Palestine]]
* [[Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia]]
* [[Failed Messiah]]
* [[The Rebbe: The Life and Afterlife of Menachem Mendel Schneerson]]

== External links ==
* [https://www.chabad.org/therebbe/ The Rebbe] – Chabad.org
* [https://www.congress.gov/public-laws/103rd-congress Public Law 103‑457] – Congress.gov

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch|Schneerson, Menachem Mendel]]
[[Category:Chabad|Schneerson, Menachem Mendel]]
[[Category:Controversial rabbis|Schneerson, Menachem Mendel]]
[[Category:Zionist movement|Schneerson, Menachem Mendel]]

Menachem Mendel Schneersohn

2026-10-14T16:30:44Z

David: Created page with "'''Menachem Mendel Schneersohn''' (or '''Schneerson''') may refer to: * Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek) (1789–1866), third Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch move..."

'''Menachem Mendel Schneersohn''' (or '''Schneerson''') may refer to:

* [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)]] (1789–1866), third Rebbe of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]], known as the ''Tzemach Tzedek''
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] (1902–1994), seventh and last Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch, known as "the Lubavitcher Rebbe"

== See also ==
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Template:Chabad sidebar]]

[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch]]

Tanya

2026-10-14T16:25:37Z

David:

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|'''Foundational work of Chabad Hasidism by Shneur Zalman of Liadi, first published in 1796, noted for its doctrine of the Jewish and non-Jewish soul'''}}

{{Infobox book
| name = Tanya
| title_orig = תניא / Likkutei Amarim (ליקוטי אמרים)
| author = [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]]
| country = [[Russian Empire]]
| language = Hebrew
| subject = Hasidic theology, Jewish mysticism, Lurianic Kabbalah
| genre = Religious text
| publisher = First edition: Slavita; standard edition: [[Kehot Publication Society]]
| pub_date = 1796 (first edition, as ''Likkutei Amarim''); 1798 (second edition, as ''Tanya''); 1814 (complete five-part edition)
}}

'''The ''Tanya''''' (Hebrew: תניא, "it has been taught"), also published as '''''Likkutei Amarim''''' ("Collected Sayings"), is the foundational text of [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement|Chabad-Lubavitch]] [[Hasidism]], written by [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]] (1745–1812), the movement's founder and first Rebbe. It was first printed anonymously at Slavita in 1796, and the [[YIVO]] encyclopedia dates it to 1797.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/2031161/jewish/What-is-the-Tanya.htm What is the Tanya? An Introduction to the Book, its Sources and its Composition] ''Chabad.org'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="YIVO">[[YIVO Institute for Jewish Research]], [https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article.aspx/shneur_zalman_of_liady Shneur Zalman of Liady] ''The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' records that Chabad Hasidim call it the "written law of Chabad" and "designate it for daily study". It is unusual among Hasidic works in being "a complete systematic exposition" by the founder of the system himself rather than a collection of sermons.<ref name="EJ">''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', [https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/shneur-zalman-liozna-lyady Shneur Zalman of (Liozna-) Lyady] ''Encyclopedia.com'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

The book sets out a mystical psychology built on [[Lurianic Kabbalah]]. At its centre is the ''beinoni'' ("intermediate person"), whose two souls are locked in continual struggle.<ref name="YIVO" /> The same teaching that gives every Jew a "divine soul" also holds, in the words of chapter one, that the souls of the nations derive "from the other, unclean ''kelipot'', which contain no good whatsoever". That passage has drawn repeated charges of racism or Jewish supremacism, which Chabad rabbis reject.<ref name="Ch1">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], elucidated by Yosef Wineberg, [https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/6087835/jewish/Tanya-Chapter-1-Part-1.htm Tanya: Chapter 1 – Part 1] ''Lessons in Tanya'', [[Chabad.org]], Brooklyn: [[Kehot Publication Society]], accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="Balk">Hanan Balk, [https://hakirah.org/Vol%2016%20Balk.pdf The Soul of a Jew and the Soul of a Non-Jew: An Inconvenient Truth and the Search for an Alternative] ''Ḥakirah, the Flatbush Journal of Jewish Law and Thought'', 2013, Vol. 16, pp. 47ff.</ref>

Under the seventh Rebbe, [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], printing the ''Tanya'' became a worldwide campaign. Chabad's own magazine counted more than 6,700 local editions by 2016, including editions produced by Chabad soldiers inside the [[Gaza Strip]] in 2024.<ref name="Derher">''A Chassidisher Derher'', [https://derher.org/wp-content/uploads/42-adar-2-5776-09.pdf Printing the Tanya] ''A Chassidisher Derher'', Adar II 5776 (2016), Issue 42.</ref><ref name="ChabadGaza">Yaakov Ort, [https://www.chabad.org/news/article_cdo/aid/6294213/jewish/After-Months-of-Starts-and-Stops-the-Tanya-Is-Printed-in-Gaza.htm After Months of Starts and Stops, the Tanya Is Printed in Gaza] ''Chabad.org'', 25 January 2024.</ref>

== Authorship and composition ==
Before he committed his teachings to writing, [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]] preached them orally. According to Chabad's introduction to the book, his discourses were "recorded from memory by his disciples" and circulated in manuscript. Many of these copies were "replete with errors as a result of repeated copying and transcription, or by the malicious mischief of opponents", which prompted him to publish an authorised outline of his system.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /> He called the work ''Likkutei Amarim'' ("Collected Sayings"), presenting it as a selection of discourses drawn "from books and scribes, heavenly saints". The subtitle ''Sefer shel Beinonim'' ("Book of the Intermediates") signalled that it was written for the ordinary believer rather than the saint.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /><ref name="WhyTanya">[[Chabad.org]], [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/4246615/jewish/Why-Is-Tanya-Called-Tanya.htm Why Is Tanya Called "Tanya"?] ''Chabad.org'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

The book appeared during the bitter conflict between Hasidim and their rabbinic opponents, the [[Mitnagdim]]. YIVO reports that in October 1798 Shneur Zalman "was arrested and interrogated as a result of being denounced to the Russian authorities as a threat to the state". The informer alleged that Hasidism was "a new religion, forbidden by law" and that its leader was sending money abroad without permission. He was freed in Saint Petersburg on 19 Kislev, a date Chabad still celebrates. A second arrest followed in 1801, after a denunciation by Avigdor ben Ḥayim, the deposed rabbi of Pinsk.<ref name="YIVO" /><ref name="EJ" /> The Israeli historian [[Immanuel Etkes]] has reconstructed both imprisonments from Russian interrogation records, and his biography gives a chapter to ''Sefer shel Beinonim''.<ref name="Etkes">[[Immanuel Etkes]], [https://brandeisuniversitypress.com/title/rabbi-shneur-zalman-of-liady-the-origins-of-chabad-hasidism/ Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liady: The Origins of Chabad Hasidism] Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press (Tauber Institute Series), 2014/2015.</ref>

== Publication history ==
The first edition (Slavita, 1796) carried the title ''Likkutei Amarim''. The second (Zolkiew, 1798) promoted the opening word, ''Tanya'', to the title and kept ''Likkutei Amarim'' as a subtitle.<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /><ref name="WhyTanya" /> The other parts were printed separately at Shklov: the short ''Iggeret ha-Teshuvah'' in 1799 and its longer version in 1806. The Shklov edition of 1814, published after the author's death, was the first to contain all five parts, "and this form has since been retained".<ref name="EJ" /> The standard modern Hebrew–English edition and commentary are published by the movement's publishing house, [[Kehot Publication Society]].<ref name="Ch1" />

=== The campaign to print the ''Tanya'' everywhere ===
According to Chabad's own account, [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] reasoned that a ''Tanya'' printed in a Jew's own city would "carry the same influence" that books shipped from elsewhere could not. His followers were therefore asked to print local editions "in every country and in each and every city where Yidden live". By 2016 they had produced "over six-thousand seven hundred editions".<ref name="Derher" /> Each edition records its place of printing, and the Kehot edition carries a list of all editions.<ref name="Derher" />

The campaign has repeatedly followed Israeli military operations. In 1982, during the [[Lebanon War]], the Rebbe "directed a group of Chassidim to print the Tanya in various Lebanese cities, including the capital city of Beirut". His instructions included printing "the name of the city where it was printed in both Hebrew and Arabic".<ref name="ChabadGaza" /> In January 2024 [[Israel Defense Forces]] Major [[Ezzy Morgenstern]], a Chabad rabbi and military chaplain, joined an armed convoy into the Gaza Strip and printed 100 copies at an IDF outpost. Chabad.org described it as fulfilling "a mission started by the Rebbe during the 1982 Lebanon war".<ref name="ChabadGaza" /> ''Israel National News'' reported that the Khan Yunis printing was managed by [[Tzeirei Agudas Chabad]] together with IDF soldiers. It was accompanied by the laying of tefillin and the fixing of a mezuzah, and Tzeirei Chabad chair [[Yosef Aharonov]] spoke of the Rebbe's "special attention to soldiers".<ref name="INN">''Israel National News'', [https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/384210 Deep in Gaza: Tanya printed on outskirts of Khan Yunis] ''Arutz Sheva / Israel National News'', 26 January 2024.</ref> Further printings followed in Rafah, according to the Chabad news site ''Anash.org''.<ref name="AnashKY">''Anash.org'', [https://anash.org/amid-fighting-tanya-printed-in-the-heart-of-khan-yunis/ Amid Fighting, Tanya Printed in the Heart of Khan Yunis] ''Anash.org'', January 2024.</ref>

== Structure ==
The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' lists the five parts of the book as follows:<ref name="EJ" /><ref name="Sefaria">[[Sefaria]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya Tanya] ''Sefaria Library'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
* '''''Sefer shel Beinonim''''' / ''Likkutei Amarim'' ("The Book of the Intermediates"), 53 chapters. The psychological and devotional core of the work.
* '''''Sha'ar ha-Yiḥud ve-ha-Emunah''''' ("The Gate of Unity and Faith"), called ''Ḥinukh Katan'' in the first edition. On divine unity and the continuous creation of the world.
* '''''Iggeret ha-Teshuvah''''' ("Epistle on Repentance"), also called ''Tanya Katan''.
* '''''Iggeret ha-Kodesh''''' ("Holy Epistle"), pastoral letters published in 1814.
* '''''Kuntres Aḥaron''''' ("Final Tract"), Shklov 1814.

== Core teachings ==
=== Two souls ===
''Likkutei Amarim'' teaches that every Jew has two souls. One "originates in the ''kelipah'' and ''sitra achara''". It is "clothed in the blood of a human being, giving life to the body", and is the source of both natural virtues and vices. The second is a "divine soul".<ref name="Ch1" /> In the Jew the first, "animal", soul is said to derive from ''kelipat nogah'', a husk "which also contains good".<ref name="Ch1" /> According to Balk, Shneur Zalman holds that the Jewish soul is "literally a part of God and the Divine essence" (''ḥelek Elokah mima'al mamesh'').<ref name="Balk" />

=== The ''beinoni'' ===
YIVO identifies the book's "main innovation" as the distinction between the ''tzaddik'', who "has completely purified his soul from evil", and the ''beinoni'', or "middling" person.<ref name="YIVO" /> The ''beinoni'' still feels evil impulses but never acts on them in thought, speech or deed. The subtitle ''Sefer shel Beinonim'' reflects the book's address to "the average Jew".<ref name="WhyTanya" />

=== Mind over heart ===
The name Chabad (ChaBaD) is an acronym of three intellectual faculties: ''ḥokhmah'' (wisdom), ''binah'' (understanding) and ''da'at'' (knowledge). In the ''Tanya'' these faculties come first and are meant to govern the emotions. [[Rachel Elior]] describes the system's "essential innovation" as a religious outlook that "concentrated upon perceiving the divinity: its essence, its nature, the stages of its manifestation", a conception that "generated a profound transformation of religious worship and was the cause of great controversy throughout the Jewish world".<ref name="Elior">[[Rachel Elior]], [https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Paradoxical-Ascent-to-God The Paradoxical Ascent to God: The Kabbalistic Theosophy of Habad Hasidism] (trans. Jeffrey M. Green), Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.</ref>

=== ''Bittul'' (self-nullification) ===
[[Naftali Loewenthal]] identifies ''bitul'' (self-abnegation) as the central esoteric concept of the second Rebbe, [[Dovber Schneuri]], who developed his father's system. He also argues that the early Chabad school was distinguished by a "communication ethos encouraging the transmission of esoteric [teachings] to the broad reaches of the Jewish world".<ref name="Loewenthal">[[Naftali Loewenthal]], [https://www.bibliovault.org/BV.book.epl?ISBN=9780226490458 Communicating the Infinite: The Emergence of the Habad School] Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.</ref>

== Intellectual context ==
=== Lurianic Kabbalah ===
YIVO describes the ''Tanya'' as "anchored in the doctrines of divinity and the soul taught by Lurianic Kabbalah", the system of Isaac Luria (1534–1572) of Safed.<ref name="YIVO" /> The key passage on the nations explicitly cites Ḥayyim Vital's ''Etz Ḥayyim'' (Portal 49, chapter 3) as its authority.<ref name="Ch1" /> The book's language of ''kelipot'' (husks) and divine sparks is taken from the Lurianic tradition.

=== Talmudic sources ===
The book takes its name from its opening word, which introduces a teaching from the Babylonian Talmud (tractate Niddah) on the oath administered to the soul before birth, "be righteous and be not wicked".<ref name="ChabadWhatIs" /><ref name="WhyTanya" /> The passage on the nations relies on the Babylonian Talmud's reading (Bava Batra 10b) of Proverbs 14:34, "the kindness of the nations is sin", which the ''Tanya'' explains as charity done "only for their self-glorification".<ref name="Ch1" /><ref name="JC2008">Dan Rickman and Yitzchak Schochet, [https://collive.com/is-the-tanya-really-racist/ Is the Tanya Really Racist?] (paired op-eds first published in the ''[[Jewish Chronicle]]''), reproduced by ''COLlive'', 30 October 2008.</ref>


=== Chabad compared with other Hasidic, Haredi and Litvish currents ===
The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' records that the book was "criticized adversely by both ''maskilim'' and ''Mitnaggedim''", and even by the Hasidic leader Abraham of Kalisk.<ref name="EJ" /> Loewenthal argues that, faced with modernity, most traditional Jewish communities either secularised or retreated "into enclave religiosity". Chabad, by "stressing communication", took a third path, and he presents this as the root of its later outreach.<ref name="Loewenthal" /> Etkes devotes chapters to Chabad's "front line against the Mitnagdim" and to the founder's conflict with Abraham of Kalisk.<ref name="Etkes" /> Within the Hasidic world, Chabad's stress on intellect and on systematic study of a single text set it apart from courts centred on the charisma of the ''tzaddik''.<ref name="EJ" /><ref name="Elior" />

== Teachings on non-Jews ==
=== The text ===
The doctrine is set out in the opening chapters of ''Likkutei Amarim'' and depends on its two-soul scheme.

'''Chapter 1: the animal soul (''nefesh ha-behamit'').''' Every Jew has a soul that "originates in the ''kelipah'' and ''sitra achara''" (the "other side"). In Jews this soul "is derived from ''kelipat nogah'', which also contains good". The Kehot translation then continues:<ref name="SefariaCh1">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.1 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 1] (Hebrew text and English translation by Nissan Mindel, [[Kehot Publication Society]]), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
<blockquote>"The souls of the nations of the world, however, emanate from the other, unclean ''kelipot'' which contain no good whatsoever, as is written in ''Etz Chaim'', Portal 49, ch. 3, that all the good that the nations do is done from selfish motives. So the Gemara [Bava Batra 10b] comments on the verse, 'The kindness of the nations is sin' [Proverbs 14:34]—that all the charity and kindness done by the nations of the world is only for their own self-glorification…"</blockquote>

'''Chapter 2: the divine soul (''nefesh ha-elokit'').''' "The second soul of a Jew is truly a part of G‑d above", derived "from His thought and wisdom" in the way that "a child is derived from his father's brain".<ref name="SefariaCh2">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.2 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 2] (Kehot translation), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The Hebrew phrase ''ḥelek Eloah mi-ma'al mamash'' ("literally a part of God above") is the basis of the claim that the Jewish soul is different in kind, not merely in degree.<ref name="Balk" />

'''Chapter 6: the three impure ''kelipot''.''' The ''kelipot'' are divided into two grades. The lower grade consists of "the three ''kelipot'' which are altogether unclean and evil, containing no good whatsoever". The text then states:<ref name="SefariaCh6">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.6 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 6] (Kehot translation), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
<blockquote>"From them flow and derive the souls of all the nations of the world, and the existence of their bodies, and also the souls of all living creatures that are unclean and unfit for consumption… as well as the existence and vitality of all forbidden food in the vegetable kingdom…"</blockquote>

'''Chapter 19.''' Holiness is defined as self-nullification before God. It is "the very opposite of the ''kelipah'' and ''sitra achara'', from which are derived the souls of the nations of the world who act for their own sake and say, 'Give, give' and 'Feed me'… [wishing] to be an independent entity". For this reason, the chapter continues, "they are called 'dead'".<ref name="SefariaCh19">[[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya%2C_Part_I%3B_Likkutei_Amarim.19 Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 19] (Hebrew text, Kehot), ''Sefaria'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The same chapter, however, applies the "dead" label to "the wicked and transgressors of Israel" as well, until they are tested and willing to sanctify God's name.<ref name="SefariaCh19" />

=== Two printed versions of chapter 1 ===
The Hebrew of the key sentence differs between editions:
* The vocalised Kehot text on [[Sefaria]] reads ''nafshot '''umot ha-olam''''' ("the souls of the '''nations of the world'''") and, in the next clause, ''ha-umot'' ("the nations").<ref name="SefariaCh1" />
* The unvocalised text reproduced by the French Orthodox site Torah-Box reads ''nafshot '''umot ovdei gilulim''''' ("the souls of the '''idol-worshipping nations'''") and ''ha-umot ovdei gilulim'' in the next clause.<ref name="TorahBox">Torah-Box, [https://www.torah-box.com/surtexte/tanya/likoutey-amarim_4209/chapitre-1_3773.html Tanya – Likoutey Amarim, chapitre 1] ''Torah-Box'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

[[Koren Publishers Jerusalem|Koren]]'s Steinsaltz edition states that, "by specific directive from the Lubavitcher Rebbe", it reproduces the Hebrew "as it was printed in the Vilna edition in 1900".<ref name="Koren">[[Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz|Adin Steinsaltz]], [https://korenpub.co.il/cdn/shop/files/9781592645855.pdf Opening the Tanya / Tanya vol. 1 (Publisher's Preface)] Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, sample PDF, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> Substituting narrower terms such as "idolaters" or "star-worshippers" for words meaning gentiles in general was a standard practice of the censors who supervised Hebrew printing in Catholic Europe and the Russian Empire.<ref name="SederOlam">Seder Olam, [https://seder-olam.com/en/n/tzenzura-sfarim/ The censorship of Hebrew books] ''Seder Olam'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> An anonymous reader's comment under the 2008 ''Jewish Chronicle'' exchange claimed the narrower wording was "merely the result of censorship by the Russian authorities".<ref name="JC2008" />

This matters because Chabad apologists rely on the narrower reading. Rabbi Yitzchok Schochet, for example, argued that the passage "speaks of idol-worshippers devoid of revealed religion".<ref name="JC2008" />

=== Critics ===
'''Orthodox and rabbinic critics'''
* Hanan Balk (''Ḥakirah'', 2013) called the doctrine "uncomfortable and racially charged" and an "inconvenient truth". He argued that it "was undoubtedly… the prominent position maintained by authorities of Jewish thought" and that its familiarity among Jews today comes mainly from "the Ḥabad movement, due to its outreach efforts". He went on to search the tradition for an "equally authentic" alternative view.<ref name="Balk" />
* [[Menachem Kellner]], professor emeritus of Jewish thought at the [[University of Haifa]], writes that the "particularism of Halevi, Zohar, and Maharal finds a muted but undeniable expression in Chabad writings", and that the ''Tanya'' "maintains that Gentiles, because of the nature of their souls, cannot aspire to the level of holiness to which Jews can".<ref name="KellnerJI">[[Menachem Kellner]], [https://www.jewishideas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem Orthodoxy and "The Gentile Problem"] ''jewishideas.org'', [[Institute for Jewish Ideas and Ideals]], accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> He sets this against [[Maimonides]], who "denies that there is any ontological difference between Jew and Gentile". Had Maimonides been "the author of the Tanya", Kellner writes, the Jew–Gentile distinction would have been "part of the very fabric of the universe".<ref name="KellnerTrue">[[Menachem Kellner]], [https://library.yctorah.org/files/2016/07/Kellner-III-with-Rapoport-response-revision6.pdf Maimonides' "True Religion"] ''Meorot'', Yeshivat Chovevei Torah, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
* Rabbi Assaf Bednarsh of [[Yeshivat Har Etzion]] summarises the ''Tanya'' view this way: the gentile soul "is purely animalistic and not Godly", so that "a gentile is not merely a lower form of life, but is essentially and irredeemably evil". He notes the problem this creates for the theology of conversion.<ref name="Bednarsh">Assaf Bednarsh, [https://etzion.org.il/en/philosophy/issues-jewish-thought/issues-mussar-and-faith/jews-and-gentiles Jews and Gentiles] ''Torat Har Etzion'', [[Yeshivat Har Etzion]], 9 February 2020.</ref>

'''Academic critics'''
* [[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]] identify the Lurianic doctrine as the root of contemporary Jewish fundamentalism: "one of the basic tenets of the Lurianic Cabbala is the absolute superiority of the Jewish soul and body over the non-Jewish soul and body".<ref name="ShahakMez">[[Israel Shahak]] and [[Norton Mezvinsky]], [https://www.plutobooks.com/product/jewish-fundamentalism-in-israel/ Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel] London: Pluto Press, 1999 (new edition 2004); quotation as given in [https://www.wrmea.org/2000-march/book-review-jewish-fundamentalism-in-israel.html Book Review: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel] ''Washington Report on Middle East Affairs'', March 2000.</ref>
* [[Elliot R. Wolfson]] argues that Schneerson built "a fundamentalist ideology" that could also subvert "the social-anthropological division between Jew and Gentile". He devotes a chapter, "Apocalyptic crossing: beyond the (non)Jewish other", to the question.<ref name="Wolfson">[[Elliot R. Wolfson]], [https://cup.columbia.edu/book/open-secret/9780231146302/ Open Secret: Postmessianic Messianism and the Mystical Revision of Menahem Mendel Schneerson] New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.</ref>
* [[Rachel Elior]] notes that the ''Tanya'''s theology "was the cause of great controversy throughout the Jewish world".<ref name="Elior" />

'''Communal and journalistic critics'''
* Dan Rickman, a member of [[Hampstead Garden Suburb Synagogue]], objected to a ''Tanya'' course there in 2008 and the synagogue dropped it. Writing in the ''[[Jewish Chronicle]]'', he argued that "within the Tanya there is no direct counter-text", that "the view presented is that non-Jews are a different and lesser type of human being than Jews", and he asked: "is 'our' racism better than 'their' racism?"<ref name="JC2008" />
* Joe Mintz, writing in the same paper a month earlier, called the text "stark".<ref name="JC2008" />


=== Political implications ===
Kellner describes ''[[Torat Hamelekh]]'' (2009) by Rabbis [[Yitzhak Shapira]] and [[Yosef Elitzur]] of [[Od Yosef Chai Yeshiva]] in [[Yitzhar]] as "a truly blood-thirsty contemporary expression of the view that Jews are ontologically distinct from and profoundly superior in every fashion to Gentiles". He notes that it carried an approbation from the Chabad-affiliated kabbalist [[Yitzhak Ginsburgh]], "author of ''Barukh haGever'', a booklet memorializing [[Baruch Goldstein]]".<ref name="KellnerJI" /><ref name="KellnerTrad">[[Menachem Kellner]], [https://traditiononline.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Kellner.pdf Today's Perplexed: Between Maimonidean Promise and Peril] ''Tradition'', 2021, Vol. 53(4).</ref> Kellner places ''Torat Hamelekh'' within the same particularist current to which he assigns the ''Tanya''. He does not claim that the book quotes the ''Tanya'' directly.<ref name="KellnerJI" />

Shahak and Mezvinsky link the soul doctrine to the settler movement in the occupied West Bank.<ref name="ShahakMez" />

=== Chabad counter-arguments ===
* '''Scope.''' Schochet argued that the passage refers to idolaters, that "the 'pious of the nations'… are excluded", and that critics misunderstand the kabbalistic term "impure shells": "in Judaism… there is no such thing of something devoid of Divinity".<ref name="JC2008" />
* '''Universal divine spark.''' Schneerson wrote that the ''kelipot'' do not lack "a spark [of G‑dliness] at all. For without a spark of good, it is impossible for any entity to exist".<ref name="Letter95">[[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], [https://www.chabad.org/therebbe/letters/default_cdo/aid/5920878/jewish/An-explanation-of-the-statement-in-Tanya-ch-1-that-the-souls-of-the-gentiles-do-not-possess-any-good.htm An explanation of the statement in Tanya, ch. 1, that the souls of the gentiles do not possess any good (Letter No. 95)] ''Chabad.org''; also in [https://sichos-in-english.org/books/letters-rebbe-1/53.htm I Will Write It In Their Hearts, Vol. 1] ''Sichos in English''.</ref>
* '''Chosenness is mainstream.''' Schochet argued that critics "proclaim this distinction… at the conclusion of every Sabbath" in the ''Havdalah'' blessing, and that the Jewish "additional soul" exists to carry out "their mission to be a Divine beacon to the nations".<ref name="JC2008" />
* '''Noahide outreach.''' Rickman himself acknowledged that "the late Rebbe had campaigned for non-Jews to keep the seven Noachide laws". The campaign is cited as evidence that Chabad does not regard non-Jews as beyond moral worth.<ref name="JC2008" />

== How successive Rebbes presented the passage ==
In what follows, '''text''' means the printed words of the ''Tanya'', '''translation''' means renderings into other languages, and '''exegesis''' means interpretation that leaves the text as it is.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Reinterpretations of ''Tanya'' ch. 1 on non-Jewish souls
! Who / when !! What was done !! Type !! Practical effect !! Source
|-
| [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], 1796–1814 || Original statement. The nations' souls derive from the three impure ''kelipot'' "which contain no good whatsoever" (ch. 1, ch. 6). || Text || The base doctrine. || <ref name="SefariaCh1" /><ref name="SefariaCh6" />
|-
| Uncertain editions (Russian Empire?) || Two Hebrew readings circulate: "nations of the world" and "idol-worshipping nations". || Text (variant) || The narrower reading lets apologists confine the passage to idolaters. Which reading came first is not established. || <ref name="SefariaCh1" /><ref name="TorahBox" /><ref name="Koren" />
|-
| [[Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)|Tzemach Tzedek]] (3rd Rebbe), ''Kitzur Tanya'' ch. 6 || Glosses "no good at all" as meaning no good "in their essence". "Through the mode of exile", the nations nevertheless contain "Divine life-energy, a spark". || Exegesis || Text unchanged. The absolute statement becomes a claim about essence, not existence. || <ref name="Letter95" />
|-
| [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]] (7th Rebbe), Letter No. 95 || Answers a correspondent who points to the Noahide laws and the "pious gentiles". He cites the Tzemach Tzedek and argues that without a spark "it is impossible for any entity to exist". || Exegesis || Text unchanged. Gentiles are given a sustaining but hidden ("swallowed up") spark. || <ref name="Letter95" />
|-
| Schneerson, reply on an English translation (published in ''Letters from the Rebbe'', 1997, pp. 106–7) || Asked whether an English translation should '''omit''' the passage for fear of antisemitism, he refused. Citing the world's indifference to the Nazi genocide, he wrote that "the words of the Alter Rebbe may even be an understatement". || Translation policy (no softening) || The text was deliberately '''not''' cut or softened in translation. || <ref name="Balk" />
|-
| Schneerson, talk with Hillel students, 7 March 1960 || "A non-Jew and every created thing does have a Divine spark, but it is not the same kind of Divine spark that a Jew has." || Exegesis || A hierarchy of souls is affirmed. Balk reads it as "the same hierarchical theory of souls found in the Tanya". || <ref name="Balk" />
|-
| Kehot English edition / ''Lessons in Tanya'' (Wineberg; edited under the Rebbe) || A commentary note adds that some among the nations, "the pious ones of the nations of the world", have souls from ''kelipat nogah''. || Commentary added to the translation || Text unchanged, but readers meet the qualification on the same page. || <ref name="Ch1" />
|-
| Chabad apologists, e.g. Schochet (2008) || Read the passage as referring to "idol-worshippers devoid of revealed religion". || Exegesis, resting on a textual variant || Narrows who is covered. || <ref name="JC2008" />
|}

'''In summary:''' the sources verified here document '''no deliberate rewording of the ''Tanya'' by any Rebbe'''. The seventh Rebbe expressly '''refused''' to cut or soften the passage in English. What did change over time was '''exegesis''' (the Tzemach Tzedek's "in their essence" gloss and Schneerson's "spark" teaching) and '''explanatory apparatus''' (the Kehot note on the "pious of the nations"). There is also a '''textual variant''' ("nations of the world" against "idol-worshipping nations") whose origin, whether the censor or the author, has not been established from a reliable bibliographic source.<ref name="Letter95" /><ref name="Balk" /><ref name="Ch1" /><ref name="TorahBox" />


== Study and outreach ==
Chabad Hasidim study the ''Tanya'' daily.<ref name="EJ" /> [[Chabad.org]] publishes ''Lessons in Tanya'', a five-volume commentary by Rabbi Yosef Wineberg, "translated from Yiddish by Rabbi Levy Wineberg and Rabbi Sholom B. Wineberg", alongside videos and alternative translations.<ref name="Ch1" /> The full text is also freely available on [[Sefaria]].<ref name="Sefaria" /> Loewenthal and Balk both connect the book's reach to Chabad's outreach strategy: the doctrine's familiarity today owes most to "the Ḥabad movement, due to its outreach efforts".<ref name="Balk" /><ref name="Loewenthal" />

== Messianism ==
Wolfson describes Schneerson as "a radical messianic visionary who promoted a conservative political agenda". He argues that the Rebbe's teaching, rooted in the ''Tanya'' and later Chabad thought, culminated in a vision of redemption beyond "all duality".<ref name="Wolfson" /> Galina Zelenina links the "ardent messianism" of the "Lubavitch mentality" to the movement's political strategy in post-Soviet Russia.<ref name="Zelenina">[[Galina Zelenina]], [https://archive.jpr.org.uk/object-rus88 "Our Community is the Coolest in the World": Chabad and Jewish Nation-Building in Contemporary Russia] ''Contemporary Jewry'', 2018, pp. 1–31.</ref> The printing campaign, with editions carried into Lebanon in 1982 and into Gaza in 2024, is presented by Chabad as one of the Rebbe's "most 'wondrous'" campaigns.<ref name="Derher" /><ref name="ChabadGaza" />

== Reception and scholarship ==
* [[Immanuel Etkes]], ''Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liady: The Origins of Chabad Hasidism'' (2014/15): the leading critical biography, drawing on Russian interrogation records.<ref name="Etkes" />
* [[Rachel Elior]], ''The Paradoxical Ascent to God'' (1993): Chabad's kabbalistic theosophy.<ref name="Elior" />
* [[Naftali Loewenthal]], ''Communicating the Infinite'' (1990): the first two generations of the Chabad school.<ref name="Loewenthal" />
* Roman A. Foxbrunner, ''Habad: The Hasidism of R. Shneur Zalman of Lyady'' (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992).<ref name="Foxbrunner">Roman A. Foxbrunner, ''Habad: The Hasidism of R. Shneur Zalman of Lyady'', Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992; cited in [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ajs-review/article/abs/setting-times-for-torah-study-in-r-shneur-zalman-of-liadys-thought/B603E0E038EA2B56B65919C0611F364B Setting Times for Torah Study in R. Shneur Zalman of Liady's Thought] ''AJS Review'', Cambridge University Press.</ref>
* [[Elliot R. Wolfson]], ''Open Secret'' (2009): the seventh Rebbe's mystical and messianic revision of Chabad thought.<ref name="Wolfson" />

== See also ==
* [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]]
* [[Chabad-Lubavitch movement]]
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]]
* [[Kehot Publication Society]]
* [[Torat Hamelekh]]
* [[Yitzhak Ginsburgh]]
* [[Chabad in occupied Palestine]]
* [[Israel Shahak]]

== External links ==
* [https://www.sefaria.org/Tanya Tanya, full text] at [[Sefaria]]
* [https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/986796/jewish/Lessons-in-Tanya.htm Lessons in Tanya] at [[Chabad.org]]
* [https://worldwidetanya.com/ Mivtza Tanya], the Chabad printing-campaign website

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Chabad]]
[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Category:Hasidic texts]]
[[Category:1796 books]]
[[Category:Religious philosophical literature]]
[[Category:Controversial books]]

Tanya

2026-10-14T16:08:36Z

David:

UK companies linked to 'Israel'

2026-10-14T15:24:48Z

David:

{{Short description|UK companies linked to 'Israel'}}
This page indexes '''172 company profiles''' compiled from Companies House and public sources. Selection is by address, ownership and documented business activity. See also the [[UK Companies with Address or Ownership Links to Israel - Alphabetical|full list of 1,026 companies]], the [[UK companies linked to 'Israel': Methodology|connection strength methodology]], and the ranked and alphabetical tables.

==By source set==

=== Occupied territories ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number
|-
| [[J.C. Bamford Excavators Limited (JCB)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00561597 00561597]
|-
| [[Motorola Solutions UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00912182 00912182]
|-
| [[CAF Rail UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/NI051735 NI051735]
|-
| [[Ithaca Energy plc]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12263719 12263719]
|-
| [[Delta Galil Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00739780 00739780]
|-
| [[Leumi UK Group Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00620951 00620951]
|-
| [[Bank Leumi (U.K.) P.L.C.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00640370 00640370]
|-
| [[Mizrahi Tefahot Bank Limited (UK establishment; London branch BR001446)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC011504 FC011504]
|-
| [[Egis UK – Consulting and Engineering Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11475428 11475428]
|-
| [[Elbit Systems UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241591 05241591]
|-
| [[UAV Tactical Systems Limited (U-TacS)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241592 05241592]
|-
| [[Greenkote Limited (formerly Greenkote PLC)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05363416 05363416]
|-
| [[Instro Precision Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00794972 00794972]
|-
| [[ESUK Aerospace and Simulation Limited (formerly Ferranti Technologies Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02968071 02968071]
|-
| [[G4S Limited (formerly G4S plc)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04992207 04992207]
|-
| [[Caterpillar (U.K.) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00484783 00484783]
|-
| [[Barclays PLC]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00048839 00048839]
|-
| [[HSBC Holdings plc]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00617987 00617987]
|-
| [[Unilever PLC]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00041424 00041424]
|-
| [[Opodo Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04051797 04051797]
|-
| [[Hanson Quarry Products Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00300002 00300002]
|-
| [[Heidelberg Materials UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04968889 04968889]
|-
| [[Airbnb UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07797907 07797907]
|-
| [[Booking.com Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03512889 03512889]
|-
| [[Expedia.com Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03847519 03847519]
|-
| [[TripAdvisor Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05612751 05612751]
|}

=== Defence and security ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number
|-
| [[Elbit Systems UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241591 05241591]
|-
| [[RUK Advanced Systems Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13966972 13966972]
|-
| [[ERCAS B.V. (UK establishment; branch BR007935; also overseas entity OE029554)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC025655 FC025655]
|-
| [[Pearson Engineering Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01876136 01876136]
|-
| [[Responsive Engineering Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04617703 04617703]
|-
| [[Israel Aerospace Industries Ltd. (Register of Overseas Entities)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE029632 OE029632]
|-
| [[Cellebrite UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08903114 08903114]
|-
| [[Corsight UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12874510 12874510]
|-
| [[AnyVision (U.K.) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11712037 11712037]
|-
| [[BriefCam Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12300286 12300286]
|-
| [[B.C. Strategy UK Ltd (Black Cube)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08153977 08153977]
|-
| [[UAV Tactical Systems Limited (U-TacS)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241592 05241592]
|-
| [[Senstar Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02112692 02112692]
|-
| [[Verint Systems UK Limited (formerly Comverse Infosys UK)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02602824 02602824]
|-
| [[Gilat Satellite Networks (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13926271 13926271]
|-
| [[Orbit Communication Systems Europe Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04489239 04489239]
|-
| [[BAE Systems plc]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01470151 01470151]
|-
| [[BAE Systems (Operations) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01996687 01996687]
|-
| [[Martin-Baker Aircraft Company Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00868042 00868042]
|-
| [[L3Harris Release & Integrated Solutions Ltd (formerly EDO MBM Technology Ltd)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00402684 00402684]
|-
| [[Leonardo UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02426132 02426132]
|-
| [[Teledyne UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00432014 00432014]
|-
| [[Instro Precision Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00794972 00794972]
|-
| [[Qioptiq Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00876004 00876004]
|-
| [[Gooch & Housego (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05890426 05890426]
|-
| [[Phoenix Optical Technologies Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05180538 05180538]
|-
| [[Stop-Choc Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01286216 01286216]
|-
| [[CAV Ice Protection Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06714461 06714461]
|-
| [[Thales UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00868273 00868273]
|-
| [[GE Aviation Systems Limited (formerly Smiths Aerospace Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00745917 00745917]
|-
| [[Ultra PCS Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14356908 14356908]
|-
| [[Safran Actuation Systems UK Limited (formerly Goodrich Actuation Systems Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04482320 04482320]
|-
| [[Icon Aerospace Technology Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00282648 00282648]
|-
| [[ESUK Aerospace and Simulation Limited (formerly Ferranti Technologies Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02968071 02968071]
|-
| [[ESUK Aerospace and Simulation (Holdings) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02982705 02982705]
|-
| [[Affinity Flying Training Services Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09805030 09805030]
|-
| [[Affinity Flying Services Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09811656 09811656]
|-
| [[Affinity Capital Works Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09805034 09805034]
|-
| [[Team X Defence Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16744996 16744996]
|}

=== Profiles batch 1 ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number
|-
| [["El Al" Israel Airlines Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC004087 FC004087]
|-
| [[Ibex Medical Analytics Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC038064 FC038064]
|-
| [[Medisafe Project Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC034094 FC034094]
|-
| [[Systel – Development & Industries Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC023933 FC023933]
|-
| [[Trigat Real Estate Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE023424 OE023424]
|-
| [[vHive Tech Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC036161 FC036161]
|-
| [[Wishi Fashion Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC033081 FC033081]
|-
| [[Yerushalmy Bezalel & Son Felt Production Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE031120 OE031120]
|-
| [[Z.N. Pollak Real Estate Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE010438 OE010438]
|-
| [[Admetec UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16213074 16213074]
|-
| [[Aqwise UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11800968 11800968]
|-
| [[Yaron Spector Real Estate Appraiser Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE008654 OE008654]
|-
| [[Brockton Everlast Inc. Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11189374 11189374]
|-
| [[Caesarstone (UK) Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05576179 05576179]
|-
| [[Check Point Software Technologies (UK) Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03201839 03201839]
|-
| [[Cognyte UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/17294745 17294745]
|-
| [[Eatos Group Real-Estate Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14933263 14933263]
|-
| [[Finance UK Properties Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15372996 15372996]
|-
| [[Agrexco Agricultural Export Company Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC014576 FC014576]
|-
| [[Amos Meler Economist & Real Estate Appraiser Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE022152 OE022152]
|-
| [[Curesponse Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC038171 FC038171]
|-
| [[D. Murad Investments Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC018863 FC018863]
|-
| [[E.R. Apex Israel (Marketing) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC017659 FC017659]
|-
| [[Frank Taylor Property Management Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE032934 OE032934]
|-
| [[Gad Engineering Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC016889 FC016889]
|}

=== Profiles batch 2 ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number
|-
| [[Frutarom (UK) Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02628890 02628890]
|-
| [[Radware (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03903389 03903389]
|-
| [[Similarweb UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08634777 08634777]
|-
| [[Taboola Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08119591 08119591]
|-
| [[West Ten Investments]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00719164 00719164]
|-
| [[Wix.com (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12576807 12576807]
|-
| [[Actimize UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05135139 05135139]
|-
| [[Allot Communications (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05820777 05820777]
|-
| [[Atlantic Green UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13801207 13801207]
|-
| [[Audiocodes Europe Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04779506 04779506]
|-
| [[Cafe Royal Management Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07791054 07791054]
|-
| [[Ham-Let CFS Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02129153 02129153]
|-
| [[Century Plastics Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02558642 02558642]
|-
| [[Cleveland Potash Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00915392 00915392]
|-
| [[Cyber-Ark Software (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06525901 06525901]
|-
| [[Global Inkjet Systems Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06012630 06012630]
|-
| [[Harel (UK) Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01001372 01001372]
|-
| [[Nice Systems UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03403044 03403044]
|-
| [[J. Isaacs Management Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00612302 00612302]
|-
| [[Kornit Digital UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10937961 10937961]
|-
| [[M.G.Assets Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03533527 03533527]
|-
| [[Myone Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06580765 06580765]
|-
| [[Navitas Petroleum Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08412666 08412666]
|-
| [[Navitas Petroleum Philippines Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14218160 14218160]
|-
| [[Osborn Development Company Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00416893 00416893]
|}

=== Profiles batch 3 ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number
|-
| [[Our Taap UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04880825 04880825]
|-
| [[Sogur Monetary Technologies Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12182049 12182049]
|-
| [[Teva UK Holdco 1 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12210932 12210932]
|-
| [[Tufin Software Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08285913 08285913]
|-
| [[Actavis UK Group Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09603816 09603816]
|-
| [[Amega Sciences Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01840633 01840633]
|-
| [[Ashtrom Properties U.K Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11153181 11153181]
|-
| [[Econergy International Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12669318 12669318]
|-
| [[Epworth Building Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12270739 12270739]
|-
| [[Everris Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07512888 07512888]
|-
| [[Green Mountain Global Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15836476 15836476]
|-
| [[Palram DPL Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02728300 02728300]
|-
| [[Hilla Group Northampton Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14553927 14553927]
|-
| [[Hiper Global UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04201138 04201138]
|-
| [[ICL UK (Sales) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06735338 06735338]
|-
| [[JFrog UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13317983 13317983]
|-
| [[Kastor Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13322968 13322968]
|-
| [[Kerem Naboth Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13619624 13619624]
|-
| [[Palram Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03004887 03004887]
|-
| [[Palram Polycarb Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03013725 03013725]
|-
| [[Plasson U.K. Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05835266 05835266]
|-
| [[Polyfoam XPS Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10314481 10314481]
|-
| [[Polyram U.K. Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05177839 05177839]
|-
| [[Risco Group UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02084510 02084510]
|-
| [[SP Nano Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC039212 FC039212]
|}

=== Profiles batch 4 ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number
|-
| [[Leumi UK Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14165799 14165799]
|-
| [[Skimbit Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06347796 06347796]
|-
| [[Teva Pharma Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10119709 10119709]
|-
| [[Tzur Intelligence Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08785913 08785913]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 1 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14704836 14704836]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 10 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15212165 15212165]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 11 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15462022 15462022]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 15 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15512656 15512656]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 16 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15627575 15627575]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 17 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15678620 15678620]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 2 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14808977 14808977]
|-
| [[Lordan (UK) Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04647792 04647792]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 3 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14809019 14809019]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 4 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14809057 14809057]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 5 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14945385 14945385]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 6 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14945453 14945453]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 7 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15089675 15089675]
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 8 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15089101 15089101]
|-
| [[Ludlow Land Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10052352 10052352]
|-
| [[Monday.com UK 2020 Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12855633 12855633]
|-
| [[Motherwell Bidco Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12414539 12414539]
|-
| [[Ree Automotive UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13039453 13039453]
|-
| [[SBC (Uganda) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10081965 10081965]
|-
| [[Signature Top II Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14285052 14285052]
|-
| [[Signature Top Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13414927 13414927]
|}

=== Profiles batch 5 ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 9 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15212086 15212086]
|-
| [[Unibal Energy Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13950168 13950168]
|-
| [[Venafi Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07375668 07375668]
|-
| [[Fattal Hotels Manchester Adair Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11659877 11659877]
|-
| [[Gear Construction UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12433952 12433952]
|-
| [[Grand Harbour Hotel Trading Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07430023 07430023]
|-
| [[One Global Market Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10396402 10396402]
|}

==Alphabetical==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Company !! Number !! Source set
|-
| [[Actavis UK Group Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09603816 09603816] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Actimize UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05135139 05135139] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Admetec UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16213074 16213074] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Affinity Capital Works Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09805034 09805034] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Affinity Flying Services Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09811656 09811656] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Affinity Flying Training Services Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/09805030 09805030] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Agrexco Agricultural Export Company Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC014576 FC014576] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Airbnb UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07797907 07797907] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Allot Communications (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05820777 05820777] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Amega Sciences Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01840633 01840633] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Amos Meler Economist & Real Estate Appraiser Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE022152 OE022152] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[AnyVision (U.K.) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11712037 11712037] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Aqwise UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11800968 11800968] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Ashtrom Properties U.K Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11153181 11153181] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Atlantic Green UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13801207 13801207] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Audiocodes Europe Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04779506 04779506] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[B.C. Strategy UK Ltd (Black Cube)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08153977 08153977] || Defence and security
|-
| [[BAE Systems (Operations) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01996687 01996687] || Defence and security
|-
| [[BAE Systems plc]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01470151 01470151] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Bank Leumi (U.K.) P.L.C.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00640370 00640370] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Barclays PLC]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00048839 00048839] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Booking.com Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03512889 03512889] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[BriefCam Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12300286 12300286] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Brockton Everlast Inc. Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11189374 11189374] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Caesarstone (UK) Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05576179 05576179] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[CAF Rail UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/NI051735 NI051735] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Cafe Royal Management Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07791054 07791054] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Caterpillar (U.K.) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00484783 00484783] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[CAV Ice Protection Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06714461 06714461] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Cellebrite UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08903114 08903114] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Century Plastics Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02558642 02558642] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Check Point Software Technologies (UK) Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03201839 03201839] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Cleveland Potash Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00915392 00915392] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Cognyte UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/17294745 17294745] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Corsight UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12874510 12874510] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Curesponse Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC038171 FC038171] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Cyber-Ark Software (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06525901 06525901] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[D. Murad Investments Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC018863 FC018863] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Delta Galil Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00739780 00739780] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[E.R. Apex Israel (Marketing) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC017659 FC017659] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Eatos Group Real-Estate Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14933263 14933263] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Econergy International Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12669318 12669318] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Egis UK – Consulting and Engineering Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11475428 11475428] || Occupied territories
|-
| [["El Al" Israel Airlines Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC004087 FC004087] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Elbit Systems UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241591 05241591] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Elbit Systems UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241591 05241591] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Epworth Building Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12270739 12270739] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[ERCAS B.V. (UK establishment; branch BR007935; also overseas entity OE029554)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC025655 FC025655] || Defence and security
|-
| [[ESUK Aerospace and Simulation (Holdings) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02982705 02982705] || Defence and security
|-
| [[ESUK Aerospace and Simulation Limited (formerly Ferranti Technologies Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02968071 02968071] || Defence and security
|-
| [[ESUK Aerospace and Simulation Limited (formerly Ferranti Technologies Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02968071 02968071] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Everris Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07512888 07512888] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Expedia.com Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03847519 03847519] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Fattal Hotels Manchester Adair Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11659877 11659877] || Profiles batch 5
|-
| [[Finance UK Properties Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15372996 15372996] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Frank Taylor Property Management Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE032934 OE032934] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Frutarom (UK) Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02628890 02628890] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[G4S Limited (formerly G4S plc)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04992207 04992207] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Gad Engineering Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC016889 FC016889] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[GE Aviation Systems Limited (formerly Smiths Aerospace Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00745917 00745917] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Gear Construction UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12433952 12433952] || Profiles batch 5
|-
| [[Gilat Satellite Networks (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13926271 13926271] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Global Inkjet Systems Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06012630 06012630] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Gooch & Housego (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05890426 05890426] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Grand Harbour Hotel Trading Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07430023 07430023] || Profiles batch 5
|-
| [[Green Mountain Global Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15836476 15836476] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Greenkote Limited (formerly Greenkote PLC)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05363416 05363416] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Ham-Let CFS Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02129153 02129153] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Hanson Quarry Products Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00300002 00300002] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Harel (UK) Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01001372 01001372] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Heidelberg Materials UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04968889 04968889] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Hilla Group Northampton Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14553927 14553927] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Hiper Global UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04201138 04201138] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[HSBC Holdings plc]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00617987 00617987] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Ibex Medical Analytics Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC038064 FC038064] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[ICL UK (Sales) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06735338 06735338] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Icon Aerospace Technology Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00282648 00282648] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Instro Precision Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00794972 00794972] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Instro Precision Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00794972 00794972] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Israel Aerospace Industries Ltd. (Register of Overseas Entities)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE029632 OE029632] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Ithaca Energy plc]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12263719 12263719] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[J. Isaacs Management Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00612302 00612302] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[J.C. Bamford Excavators Limited (JCB)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00561597 00561597] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[JFrog UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13317983 13317983] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Kastor Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13322968 13322968] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Kerem Naboth Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13619624 13619624] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Kornit Digital UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10937961 10937961] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[L3Harris Release & Integrated Solutions Ltd (formerly EDO MBM Technology Ltd)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00402684 00402684] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Leonardo UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02426132 02426132] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Leumi UK Group Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00620951 00620951] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Leumi UK Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14165799 14165799] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Lordan (UK) Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04647792 04647792] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Ludlow Land Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10052352 10052352] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[M.G.Assets Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03533527 03533527] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Martin-Baker Aircraft Company Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00868042 00868042] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Medisafe Project Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC034094 FC034094] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Mizrahi Tefahot Bank Limited (UK establishment; London branch BR001446)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC011504 FC011504] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Monday.com UK 2020 Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12855633 12855633] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Motherwell Bidco Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12414539 12414539] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Motorola Solutions UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00912182 00912182] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Myone Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06580765 06580765] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Navitas Petroleum Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08412666 08412666] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Navitas Petroleum Philippines Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14218160 14218160] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Nice Systems UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03403044 03403044] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[One Global Market Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10396402 10396402] || Profiles batch 5
|-
| [[Opodo Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04051797 04051797] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Orbit Communication Systems Europe Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04489239 04489239] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Osborn Development Company Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00416893 00416893] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Our Taap UK Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04880825 04880825] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Palram DPL Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02728300 02728300] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Palram Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03004887 03004887] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Palram Polycarb Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03013725 03013725] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Pearson Engineering Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01876136 01876136] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Phoenix Optical Technologies Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05180538 05180538] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Plasson U.K. Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05835266 05835266] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Polyfoam XPS Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10314481 10314481] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Polyram U.K. Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05177839 05177839] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Qioptiq Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00876004 00876004] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Radware (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/03903389 03903389] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Ree Automotive UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13039453 13039453] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Responsive Engineering Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04617703 04617703] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Risco Group UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02084510 02084510] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[RUK Advanced Systems Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13966972 13966972] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Safran Actuation Systems UK Limited (formerly Goodrich Actuation Systems Limited)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/04482320 04482320] || Defence and security
|-
| [[SBC (Uganda) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10081965 10081965] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Senstar Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02112692 02112692] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Signature Top II Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14285052 14285052] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Signature Top Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13414927 13414927] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Similarweb UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08634777 08634777] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Skimbit Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06347796 06347796] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Sogur Monetary Technologies Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12182049 12182049] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[SP Nano Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC039212 FC039212] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Stop-Choc Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01286216 01286216] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Systel – Development & Industries Ltd.]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC023933 FC023933] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Taboola Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08119591 08119591] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Team X Defence Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16744996 16744996] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Teledyne UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00432014 00432014] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Teva Pharma Holdings Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/10119709 10119709] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[Teva UK Holdco 1 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12210932 12210932] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Thales UK Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00868273 00868273] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Trigat Real Estate Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE023424 OE023424] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[TripAdvisor Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05612751 05612751] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Tufin Software Europe Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08285913 08285913] || Profiles batch 3
|-
| [[Tzur Intelligence Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08785913 08785913] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UAV Tactical Systems Limited (U-TacS)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241592 05241592] || Defence and security
|-
| [[UAV Tactical Systems Limited (U-TacS)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/05241592 05241592] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 1 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14704836 14704836] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 10 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15212165 15212165] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 11 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15462022 15462022] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 15 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15512656 15512656] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 16 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15627575 15627575] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 17 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15678620 15678620] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 2 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14808977 14808977] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 3 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14809019 14809019] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 4 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14809057 14809057] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 5 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14945385 14945385] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 6 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14945453 14945453] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 7 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15089675 15089675] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 8 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15089101 15089101] || Profiles batch 4
|-
| [[UK Beam Holdings No 9 Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/15212086 15212086] || Profiles batch 5
|-
| [[Ultra PCS Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/14356908 14356908] || Defence and security
|-
| [[Unibal Energy Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/13950168 13950168] || Profiles batch 5
|-
| [[Unilever PLC]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00041424 00041424] || Occupied territories
|-
| [[Venafi Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07375668 07375668] || Profiles batch 5
|-
| [[Verint Systems UK Limited (formerly Comverse Infosys UK)]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/02602824 02602824] || Defence and security
|-
| [[vHive Tech Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC036161 FC036161] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[West Ten Investments]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/00719164 00719164] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Wishi Fashion Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/FC033081 FC033081] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Wix.com (UK) Limited]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/12576807 12576807] || Profiles batch 2
|-
| [[Yaron Spector Real Estate Appraiser Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE008654 OE008654] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Yerushalmy Bezalel & Son Felt Production Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE031120 OE031120] || Profiles batch 1
|-
| [[Z.N. Pollak Real Estate Ltd]] || [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OE010438 OE010438] || Profiles batch 1
|}

==See also==
*[[UK companies linked to 'Israel']]
*[[UK Companies with Address or Ownership Links to Israel - Alphabetical]]
*[[UK Companies with Address or Ownership Links to Israel - Ranked by density of connection]]
*[[UK Companies with documented links to business activity in the Occupied Palestinian territories and the occupied Golan]]
*[[UK defence, security, surveillance and dual-use technology companies with documented business ties to 'Israel']]
*[[UK companies linked to 'Israel': Methodology]]

==Notes==
This index is a navigational page. Company pages carry the sourced research and caveats.
==References==
[[Category:Israel]]

History of Chabad in the USSR - 1989

2026-10-14T15:05:49Z

David:

{{Chabad sidebar}}
{{short description|Book detailing the history of the Chabad movement in the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1950}}
'''History of Chabad in the USSR''' (Hebrew: ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'') is a 1989 historical work documenting the struggles and activities of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement in the Soviet Union between 1917 and 1950.

The book covers the period from the Bolshevik Revolution through the leadership of Rabbi [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] (the Rebbe Rayatz), focusing on resistance to religious persecution by the Yevsektsiya (Jewish Section of the Communist Party), underground yeshivas, and efforts to sustain Jewish observance.

== Background ==
Compiled by Rabbi [[Shalom Dovber Levin]] based on letters, documents, and oral testimonies, the work was published by Kehot Publication Society in Brooklyn, New York.<ref name="Levin1989">Levin, Shalom Dovber. ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', Kehot Publication Society, Brooklyn, NY, 1989.</ref>

It details the Rebbe Rayatz's campaigns, arrests, exile, and support networks for Chabad communities, including the network of underground ''Tomchei Temimim'' yeshivas that operated across dozens of towns. The book is organized thematically with chronological elements, featuring a special section on the yeshiva network (chapters נא–צח) and emigration (צט–קכ).

== Chapter 1: The first years of Soviet rule ==
Describes the Bolshevik takeover in late 1917, the civil war, founding of the Yevsektsiya, early anti-religious propaganda and measures (synagogue seizures, closure of communal institutions), and the relatively limited special targeting of Chabad before the mid-1920s. Most Jews remained traditional; open freethinkers were few.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]] | [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The Communist government, upon coming to power, did not immediately emphasize in its official laws its opposition to religion. At the very beginning of its existence it proclaimed the separation of religion from the state and that religion was the private affair of citizens. This law did not particularly hinder Jewish institutions, which previously had not received support from the state treasury either.
<ref name="Levin1989p19">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 19.</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>In the first year of the Yevsektsiya’s existence it did not have real influence on the Jewish street. The Jews of Russia were then mostly believing Jews, the sons of believers… The number of freethinkers was small.
<ref name="Levin1989p19">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 19.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 2: The state of the economy – at the end of the war ==
Covers the devastation from war, pogroms (especially in Ukraine), famine, nationalization of property, and the extreme poverty that prevented reconstruction of religious institutions. Sabbath-observing Jews were barred from state factories; private trade was restricted.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Meir Gorkov]] | [[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The years of war, years of siege, illness and famine, years of pogroms, pillage and murder… which passed over our land… made desolation in the land and, God forbid, it was as if the divine light had already been extinguished. How many houses of study and synagogues were destroyed, Torah scrolls torn and burned, rabbis, community leaders and shochetim with thousands of Jews were killed and slaughtered…
— Rebbe Rayatz letter, 22 Tevet 5683 (1922–1923) <ref name="Levin1989p20">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 20 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz letter, 22 Tevet 5683 (1922–1923)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 3: Dispatch of mashpi’im throughout Russia ==
Details the post-1920 (after the Rebbe Rashab’s passing) organized sending of mashpi’im to towns to establish fixed Torah and Chassidus study, “Kupat Rabbeinu,” and strengthen Jewish life. Includes early instructions and reports.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shalom DovBer Schneersohn]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Eliyahu Eber]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Avraham Baruch Pevzner]] | [[Hillel Liberov]] | [[Samuel Levin]] | [[Kupat Rabbeinu]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Also endeavour in the matter of establishing fixed study of Chassidus in the towns… and the establishment of chadarim in the towns…
— Rebbe Rashab’s will <ref name="Levin1989p22">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 22 (quoting Rebbe Rashab’s will).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 4: Strengthening Judaism in Georgia ==
Covers emissaries sent to Georgia and the Caucasus from the late 1910s onward (Levitin, Slavin, Shushkin, Zuber, Perlove, etc.), founding of cheders and yeshivas, and later developments including arrests.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmuel Levitin]] | [[Avraham Levi Slavin]] | [[Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin]] | [[Israel Zuber]] | [[Mordechai Perlove]] | [[Simcha Gorodetsky]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The cheder, thank God, has grown… and he made them a cheder in another town, and in a second and third, until he travelled through all the towns of the country…
— Rebbe Rayatz <ref name="Levin1989p25">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 25 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 5: Establishing the destroyed religious institutions ==
Describes efforts (with limited foreign aid) to rebuild mikvaos, support rabbis/shochetim/melamdim, and the shift toward NEP-era small-scale economic activity that partially enabled religious life until 1929.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[David Schifrin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Havlin]] | [[Agudas Chassidei Chabad]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Every community and assembly in Israel is doing great work to re-establish all matters of religion and to rebuild them as at the beginning, but they lack the means… and in this I turn to our brothers the House of Israel everywhere… to found a special society to come to the aid of the Hebrew communities in our land…
<ref name="Levin1989p20">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 20.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 6: Establishing a spiritual rabbinical centre ==
Recounts the founding of the Rabbinical Centre in 1923 under the Rebbe’s initiative, its work against anti-religious measures, and continuation after the Rebbe’s departure.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmuel Rabinowitz]] | [[Yaakov Klemes]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Yechezkel Abramsky]] | [[Shmuel Levitin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Gluskin]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>From the year 5682 (1921–1922), in this month until Sivan 5687 (1926–1927), almost no week passed in which I did not do difficult work in the yoke of Torah, and in open and hidden war with the persecutors of religion, namely the well-known Yevsektsiya.
— Rebbe Rayatz <ref name="Levin1989p35">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 35 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 7: The struggle against the closure of the chadarim ==
The longest early chapter, subdivided into obtaining permits for private study with three pupils, memoranda and petitions, the law after the permit, continued persecutions, establishment and support of chadarim, the year 5688 (1927–1928), subsequent years, and compulsory education laws. Includes extensive documentary material on Yevsektsiya actions and legal battles. Details the 1923-1924 legal interpretations allowing limited private religious instruction (up to 3 pupils), Yevsektsiya propaganda and show trials against melamdim, establishment of underground or semi-legal chadarim supported by the Rebbe's network, lists of towns with numbers of pupils and support needs in 1928, the impact of the 1930 compulsory education law forcing parents to send children to Soviet schools or face penalties, and individual accounts of parents continuing clandestine education.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]] | [[Yaakov Zachariah Maskalik]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]] | [[Benzion Maroz]] | [[Raphael Cohen]] | [[Menachem Mendel Gluskin]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In the general session of the VTsIK… on Saturday 7 July 1923… Krylenko… declared that home studies in private groups are not included in the prohibition at all.
<ref name="Levin1989p39">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 39.</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>The Yevsektsiya… set for itself the mission of making possible the uprooting of the Torah from among the Jewish people… and of liquidating the teachers of the Jewish people.
<ref name="Levin1989p41">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 41.</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>There are those who think that the Torah has already disappeared entirely from the House of Jacob in our land... but it is also true that Israel is not yet widowed and there are still many boys and youths whose fathers entrust them to study Torah.
— Shlomo Yosef Zevin <ref name="Levin1989p53">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 53 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 8: The struggle against the seizure of the synagogues ==
Details the systematic confiscation of synagogues by the Yevsektsiya for clubs and other uses, starting from the early years of Soviet rule. Describes legal efforts by the Rabbinical Centre and lawyers (including Orinson), petitions to Kalinin, local resistance (e.g., in Oni, Georgia, where residents physically prevented closure until military intervention), gradual takeover of remaining synagogues by the mid-1930s, formation of secret minyanim in private homes, and efforts to protect or relocate Torah scrolls. Includes specific letters from 1933-1934 describing conditions in towns like Nikolayev, Krivoy Rog, Uman, and others.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Yaakov Landau]] | [[Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[Mikhail Kalinin]] | [[Orinson]] (lawyer)

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The synagogues are taken by force for clubs... while the chadarim of Israel are closed, and the people in whom there is the scent of Torah and service are persecuted, insulted and judged, by the young men who have shaken off every good feeling...
— Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Tammuz 5683 (1922–1923) <ref name="Levin1989p65">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 65 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Tammuz 5683 (1922–1923)).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>In general, persecutions of the religion have now begun in order to uproot the remnant of the survivors; they take and close the synagogues and batei midrash (only secretly and cunningly, so as not to make a noise abroad).
— Yaakov Zachariah Maskalik, 1934 <ref name="Levin1989p66">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 66 (quoting Yaakov Zachariah Maskalik, 1934).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 9: Spreading Torah – Tiferet Bachurim ==
Describes the Rebbe's efforts to establish regular Torah study sessions in synagogues and the organization of "Tiferet Bachurim" groups for young workers, merchants, and students (ages ~18-35) to study Chumash, Kitzur Shulchan Aruch, Gemara, etc., in the evenings. Supported by the Rabbinical Centre in multiple cities including Moscow, Leningrad, Minsk, Vitebsk, Nevel. Reports of hundreds of members and positive impact on Jewish life.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Eliyahu Chaim Althaus]] | [[Tiferet Bachurim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The experience has shown me that in Tsaritsyn... in seven synagogues, thank God, they study in every synagogue between Mincha and Maariv and after Maariv a Gemara lesson, and this costs me five rubles... per month.
— Rebbe Rayatz <ref name="Levin1989p69">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 69 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 10: The covenant to the last drop of blood ==
Recounts the winter 1924 (5684 (1923–1924)) Moscow assembly of Tomchei Temimim students (eight or nine “temimim”) who swore an oath of self-sacrifice “to the last drop of blood” for Torah and Judaism. The Rebbe divided regions among them for underground work establishing chadarim, fixed study sessions, and mikvaot. Shortly afterward the GPU sought to arrest the Rebbe in Rostov; he relocated temporarily and then moved the household to Leningrad. Includes accounts of a 19 Kislev farbrengen in Rostov and the participants’ subsequent activities.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Benzion Shemtov]] | [[Simcha Gorodetsky]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]] | [[GPU]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>After the histalkus, decrees began against Torah and chadarim. In 5684 (1923–1924) nine temimim—students of Tomchei Temimim—gathered in Moscow and I was the tenth, and we all swore to sacrifice ourselves for Torah until the last drop of blood. We then divided the work in the country, each to a separate region. This had a great influence on the country and hundreds of Talmud Torahs and chadarim were founded.
— one of the participants <ref name="Levin1989p73">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 73 (quoting one of the participants).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>I selected eight young temimim with healthy heads and hearts and hands and feet. I called them together to Moscow for an assembly, and we swore an oath that whatever would be, one must be ready to go to the last drop of blood.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 13 Tammuz 5692 (1931–1932) talk <ref name="Levin1989p73">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 73 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 13 Tammuz 5692 (1931–1932) talk).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 11: Strengthening Judaism in the colonies (koloniyes) ==
Details efforts from the mid-1920s to support Jewish agricultural colonies (especially in Crimea, Kherson, and nearby districts) established with Joint Distribution Committee assistance. The Rabbinical Centre sent questionnaires, emissaries (including Simcha Gorodetsky), and funds for shochetim, melamdim, mikvaot, and synagogues. Includes extensive lists of colonies and their needs, negotiations with Joint officials, and the Rebbe’s insistence that material aid be accompanied by religious infrastructure. Later sections note famine-driven departure of many shochetim in the early 1930s.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Simcha Gorodetsky]] | [[Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>A special chapter is the fifth department, the colonies department in the districts of Crimea, Kherson, Kriukovo and others… the new settlements being built in Crimea and elsewhere without any sign of Judaism and without any scent of ancestral tradition, without a place for prayer and without a teacher for Torah, without a shochet for kashrut and without a mikveh for purity…
— Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927) <ref name="Levin1989p74">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 74 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 12: Mission of R. Benzion Shemtov ==
Covers the 1925–1927 (approx.) clandestine travels of Benzion Shemtov through Volhynia, Kiev, and Podolia. He established dozens of chadarim and several secret yeshivas, organized Tiferet Bachurim groups, fixed study sessions, and mikvaot, while compiling statistical reports on Jewish religious life. He was later arrested and sentenced to three years in Siberia.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Benzion Shemtov]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Eliyahu Chaim Althaus]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>For two and a half years he travelled, thank God, in great success, and founded very many tens of chadarim, and delivered passionate speeches about fixed times for Torah… and a different spirit entered Volhynia.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p80">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 80 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 13: Mission of R. Binyamin Gorodetsky ==
Describes Binyamin Gorodetsky’s 1927 mission to the Kiev region. He reorganized and expanded chadarim and yeshivas (including taking over an existing yeshiva in Podol), established “Torah Temimah” and “Ohalei Shem,” and worked among both observant and newly attracted Jews until his arrest around early 1931 and subsequent exile.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In the summer of 5687 (1926–1927) a letter from our Rebbe was received at the administration of the beis midrash, in which he expresses his desire to send me as a rabbi to Kiev and the surrounding districts, and also for the purpose of organizing chadarim, Talmud Torahs and yeshivas.
— Binyamin Gorodetsky, Sefer Zikaron <ref name="Levin1989p83">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 83 (quoting Binyamin Gorodetsky, Sefer Zikaron).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 14: Mission of R. Simon Yakovashvili (Yakobson) ==
Recounts the Georgian-born temim Simon Yakovashvili’s 1926–1927 mission throughout Georgia after Shmuel Levitin’s departure. He established chadarim, yeshivas, and mikvaot and delivered public addresses. Yevsektsiya head Litvakov later complained that the Rebbe’s emissaries had revived religious life even in distant Georgia and Turkestan. Includes coded letters describing his arrest and release.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Simon Yakovashvili (Yakobson)]] | [[Shmuel Levitin]] | [[Litvakov]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Wherever we turn—not only in White Russia or Little Russia and Inner Russia but even in distant corners such as Georgia and Turkestan—there too are found the messengers and agents of Rabbi Schneersohn to maintain the institutions of religion.
— Litvakov, head of the Yevsektsiya, as reported 5687 (1926–1927) <ref name="Levin1989p84">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 84 (quoting Litvakov, head of the Yevsektsiya, as reported 5687 (1926–1927)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 15: Mission of R. Simcha Gorodetsky ==
After his Crimean colonies work, Simcha Gorodetsky was sent in 1926 to Samarkand/Bukhara. He founded a large Talmud Torah (reportedly reaching ~800–1,000 children and 25–45 melamdim) and a Tiferet Bachurim group among the local Bukharan Jewish community.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Simcha Gorodetsky]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>He put himself in actual danger and came to Bukhara, and thank God in the city of Samarkand he founded chadarim and within about three months gathered about eight hundred young students…
— Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p88">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 88 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 16: Organizing home handicrafts (kustar) ==
Covers the Rebbe’s efforts during the NEP period to promote and obtain Joint support for Jewish religious craftsmen (kustarniks) who could observe Shabbat while earning a living. Includes detailed proposals submitted to Joint officials in Moscow and Berlin, the founding of an artel in Leningrad, and correspondence highlighting the desperate economic situation of observant Jews barred from state employment.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]] | [[Dr. Rosen]] | [[Dr. Haukin]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>I am not content with the work in matters of Torah and buildings; I am submitting a memorandum to the Joint concerning aid for handicraft work—kustar—and I am founding, by means of letters, a bureau in New York that will enter into discussions with the members of the Joint…
— Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928) <ref name="Levin1989p89">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 89 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 17: Livelihood of Anash ==
Describes the severe economic distress of Chabad hasidim (Anash) in the mid-1920s. Most were small traders or kustarniks whose livelihoods were collapsing under Soviet restrictions. The Rebbe and the Rabbinical Centre (via Shmuel Levitin) circulated questionnaires to former Tomchei Temimim students about their skills and willingness to take up agriculture or crafts, while continuing to press the Joint for support. Includes detailed accounts of the Rebbe’s household expenses in Leningrad and the general poverty that made even supporting the yeshiva network difficult.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmuel Levitin]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]] | [[Anash]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The state of Anash is that there is no need to describe their condition in general, and the main thing is that small trade from private individuals and the kustarniks have recently been declining lower and lower… the majority of Anash are merchants and a very small minority engage in some handicraft…
— Yitzchak Leib Neishuler letter, 2 Menachem Av 5686 (1925–1926) <ref name="Levin1989p91">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 91 (quoting Yitzchak Leib Neishuler letter, 2 Menachem Av 5686 (1925–1926)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 18: Separation of religion from the state and the Yevsektsiya ==
Presents a detailed memorandum (delivered by the Rebbe to Professor Haukin in 1927) contrasting official Soviet law on separation of church and state with the actual practices of the Yevsektsiya and local authorities. Documents how Yevsektsiya pressure led to forced atheism, closure of synagogues, harassment of parents providing religious education, discrimination against observant employees and students, and the absence of genuine Jewish representation before the government. Notes that the Yevsektsiya’s anti-religious campaign continued mainly until around 1930.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[Professor Haukin]] | [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The religion is declared the private affair of the believer. The state does not intervene at all in the sphere of religion… To our regret, however, we see facts that grossly contradict the above situation.
<ref name="Levin1989p93">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 93 (from the 1927 memorandum on the religious life of the Jewish population).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 19: The Leningrad Conference ==
Recounts the 1925–1926 crisis surrounding a proposed all-Russian Jewish communal conference initiated by the largely secular leadership of the Leningrad Jewish community (under Gorowitz). The Rebbe and observant circles strongly opposed it, fearing it would be exploited by the Yevsektsiya and freethinkers to introduce reforms. The chapter details the split in the Leningrad community, the founding of the pure “Tzemach Tzedek” congregation under Shimon Lazarov, public meetings, the Rebbe’s open letter of 13 Sivan 5686 (1925–1926) condemning the conference, and the eventual collapse of the project under GPU pressure. Eliyahu Chaim Althaus’s long contemporary account is extensively quoted.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Eliyahu Chaim Althaus]] | [[Shimon Lazarov]] | [[David Tevele Katzenelenbogen]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[GPU]] | [[Tzemach Tzedek]] (Leningrad congregation)

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>It is clear to me that this conference which the Leningrad community is thinking of calling is unclean… I am utterly opposed to any general conference whatsoever, and I testify by all that is holy to me that the initiators of the idea of the general Leningrad conference have an evil thing concealed in it…
— Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928) letter <ref name="Levin1989p96">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 96 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 15 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928) letter).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>A general religious conference of the community of Israel who fear God and keep the Torah and the commandments in this country… has great value, and very great responsibility is involved in it and in its results… [But] the “general religious conference” which the Leningrad community is calling is new in the land and departs from the rule…
— Rebbe Rayatz open letter, 13 Sivan 5686 (1925–1926) <ref name="Levin1989p103">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 103 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz open letter, 13 Sivan 5686 (1925–1926)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 20: The Korosten Conference ==
Describes the October 1926 (Marcheshvan 5687 (1926–1927)) conference of nearly 100 rabbis (mainly from Volhynia and Ukraine) held in Korosten under official Soviet permission. Initiated by local rabbis (including Shmuel Kipnis) as a counterweight to the secular Leningrad proposal, it focused on strengthening religious institutions. The Rebbe was elected honorary president in absentia; Shlomo Yosef Zevin and others played leading roles. The gathering raised Yevsektsiya and GPU hostility and contributed to later arrests. Includes the official participant list and contemporary press reports.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Shmuel Kipnis]] | [[Benzion Shemtov]] | [[Shimon Lazarov]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[GPU]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The assembly of the Volhynian rabbis in the city of Korosten… made a great impression on the world of religious (Orthodox) Judaism. In total there were close to one hundred rabbis… The assembly chose His Honor [the Rebbe] as honorary president in his absence…
— Elchanan Dov Marozov letter, 3 Kislev 5687 (1926–1927) <ref name="Levin1989p106">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 106 (quoting Elchanan Dov Marozov letter, 3 Kislev 5687 (1926–1927)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 21: The arrests ==
Covers the wave of arrests in 1926–1928 of the Rebbe’s secretaries and emissaries connected to the underground Torah work and the conferences. Benzion Shemtov was arrested in Ovruch, held in Kharkov, and sentenced to three years in Siberia. Elchanan Dov Marozov was arrested in early 1927 on a fabricated charge and exiled to Siberia. Others arrested or sentenced to forced labor included Shlomo Chaim Kesselman (Polotsk), Binyamin Gorodetsky (Kiev), and several Nevel yeshiva students. The chapter draws on the Rebbe’s letters, Yechezkel Feigin’s reports, and contemporary accounts.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Benzion Shemtov]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]] | [[GPU]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The Yevsektsiya smelled that there is a hidden hand working and making great propaganda in spreading Torah… and for about three months he felt that he had a shadow following his tracks… and one day in Adar 5687 (1926–1927) they caught him in the city of Ovruch and sent him bound in iron chains under heavy guard to the city of Kharkov and put him in prison…
— Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p115">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 115 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 2 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 22: The Rebbe continues the struggle ==
Despite the arrests of his closest aides and the personal danger, the Rebbe continued directing the network of underground yeshivas and chadarim. Yechezkel Feigin, then managing the dispersed Tomchei Temimim branches, visited him after Pesach 5687 (1926–1927) and recorded the Rebbe’s continued focus on the general work even while physically weakened.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Despite all this the Rebbe continued his work with self-sacrifice, without taking into account the arrests of the workers with him, nor the risk that they were preparing to arrest him as well…
<ref name="Levin1989p118">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 118.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 23: The arrest of the Rebbe and his exit from Russia ==
Narrates the Rebbe’s arrest on the night of 15 Sivan 5687 (June 1927) in Leningrad, the interrogations, his refusal to abandon tefillin, the 19 days of imprisonment, transfer to Kostroma, then to Malakhovka near Moscow, and the intensive international efforts that secured his release and permission to leave the Soviet Union in the autumn of 5688 (Tishrei). Includes coded and open letters from Anash describing the shock in Jewish Russia, public fasts, and the Rebbe’s own later account of the period. He settled in Riga.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Mordechai Dubin]] | [[Dr. Yosef Rosen]] | [[Eliyahu Chaim Althaus]] | [[GPU]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>A time of trouble for Jacob. On the night of Wednesday 15 Sivan they called our honored friend [the Rebbe] the verse Genesis 39:20 [And Joseph’s master took him and put him into the prison]… The eyes of all Israel in our country are covered with tears of blood, they decree fasts everywhere. Danger faces all Israel and the Torah.
<ref name="Levin1989p121">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 121 (anonymous letter from Russia, seventh day of the arrest).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>Blessed is He who has kept us alive and sustained us and brought us to this time, that I am able to come into correspondence with my beloved and faithful friends… for during the last three months of my dwelling in our country I was deprived of the ability—because of the watchful eyes of the known searchers—to write even regards.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 8 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928), from Riga <ref name="Levin1989p125">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 125 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 8 Menachem Av 5688 (1927–1928), from Riga).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 24: The Committee of Shield and Shelter for the Jews of Russia ==
Upon settling in Riga, the Rebbe reorganized and expanded the external aid committee (previously planned with figures such as Dr. Meir Hildesheimer, Wolf of Frankfurt, and others). Meetings in Riga in late 1927 / early 1928 defined a multi-branch program: support for yeshivas and chadarim, mikvaot and synagogues, legal defense against Yevsektsiya actions, kustar (handicraft) assistance, and work in the colonies. The chapter includes the detailed protocol of the Riga meetings and the formal work plan of the “Committee for Strengthening Torah and Religion in Soviet Russia.”

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Dr. Meir Hildesheimer]] | [[Mordechai Dubin]] | [[Yosef Rosen (Rogatchover)]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]] | [[Va'ad HaEzra]] (later Paris/Poland branches)

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The work must be conducted under the supervision of the head of the center over the course of the work and its educational guidance, as was the practice in Leningrad…
<ref name="Levin1989p127">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 127 (from the Riga committee protocol).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 25: Support for the Jews of Russia ==
Focuses on the material (not only spiritual) aid organized by the Rebbe Rayatz immediately after leaving the USSR and settling in Riga. Priority was given to expanding home handicraft (*kustar*) work, the only viable livelihood for Sabbath observers once state employment and private trade were restricted. Detailed memoranda were sent to Prof. V. Haukin (Alliance Israélite) and others; the Rebbe stressed that the aid was for all Russian Jews, not only Chabad. Trips to Berlin and other European centers were made for this purpose.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Professor V. Haukin]] | [[Dr. Meir Hildesheimer]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]] | [[Alliance Israélite Universelle]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Not only spiritual support did our Rebbe extend to the Jews of Russia upon reaching the free world, but also, and perhaps mainly, material help… the only work possible for Sabbath observers.
<ref name="Levin1989p135">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 135.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 26: Sending Matzos to Russia ==
Documents the large-scale 1929 (Adar–Nisan 5689 (1928–1929)) campaign that shipped dozens of train cars of baked matzos plus thousands of parcels of Passover flour. Signed joint appeals with the Chofetz Chaim and R. Chaim Ozer Grodzinski. Later years faced Soviet restrictions (only flour parcels allowed, high customs, risk to recipients); the Rebbe continued organizing via Riga and Berlin centers.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Yisrael Meir Kagan (Chofetz Chaim)]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]] | [[Dr. Meir Hildesheimer]] | [[Eliyahu Chaim Althaus]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In a short time of about twenty-six days something was accomplished that at first seemed impossible… 28 train cars of baked matzos and 5,689 parcels of Passover flour…
— Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p138">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 138 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 27: The Journey to the United States for the Benefit of Russian Jews ==
Covers the Rebbe’s 1929–1930 visit to America (and brief stop in Eretz Yisrael). Primary goal was to mobilize public opinion and institutions for Russian Jewry. Meetings with the Union of Orthodox Rabbis; limited practical success because the Wall Street crash intervened. Contemporary press coverage and coded letters from remaining rabbis in the USSR are included.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Union of Orthodox Rabbis]] | [[R. Moshe Zev Margolies]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The general matters with which the Rebbe is occupied for the benefit of our brothers living in our country… require and force a journey of the Rebbe himself to the United States.
— Yechezkel Feigin, 25 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p143">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 143 (quoting Yechezkel Feigin, 25 Shevat 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 28: Liquidation of the NEP ==
Describes Stalin’s end of the New Economic Policy (NEP) from 1929/30 onward. Independent handicrafts and petty trade—the remaining sources of livelihood for observant Jews—were eliminated. Sabbath observers were barred from state factories. Some managed cooperative *artels* or night-watchman jobs; most sank into extreme poverty. Letters from Anash (including Leah Beila Levin) illustrate the desperation.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Leah Beila Levin]] | [[Alter Shneur Zalman Gitlin]] | [[Shaul Brook]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Meanwhile the economic situation in Russia worsened greatly, especially for Sabbath-observing Jews… the sources of livelihood of the observant Jews were wiped out.
<ref name="Levin1989p147">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 147.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 29: The Famine ==
Covers the catastrophic famine of 1932–33 (and continuing hardship). Hundreds of letters reached R. Israel Jacobson describing near-starvation; observant Jews were among the first victims. The Rebbe organized emergency “aid for the hungry” funds and Torgsin remittances. Graphic contemporary accounts are quoted.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Zalman Posner]] | [[Moshe Axelrod]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Menachem Mendel Dubrovsky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>For seven or eight years I have been separated from you… now necessity forces me to write a request… for almost a full year we have suffered actual starvation…
— Dov Ber Babrov, 4 Shevat 5693 (1932–1933) <ref name="Levin1989p150">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 150 (quoting Dov Ber Babrov, 4 Shevat 5693 (1932–1933)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 30: The Rebbe’s Efforts to Secure Support ==
Despite the Great Depression choking American fundraising, the Rebbe continued intense personal efforts throughout the famine years (1931–33). He traveled to Paris and Warsaw, incurred large private debts, and sent whatever funds he could raise (mainly via Torgsin). Contemporary letters describe his physical and emotional exhaustion from the work.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Rothstein]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Torgsin]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>You have no concept at all of how much soul-pain and grief I suffered and continue to suffer… I began working for their benefit without rest… the support is not at all in proportion to the labor.
— Rebbe Rayatz to R. Zamszky, late Iyar 5693 (1932–1933) <ref name="Levin1989p158">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 158 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz to R. Zamszky, late Iyar 5693 (1932–1933)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 31: Founding of the “Aid Committee” in Paris and Poland ==
In 1933 the Rebbe established formal aid committees in Paris (with Baron de Gunzburg, R. Eisenstadt and others) and in Warsaw/Poland (jointly with Polish rebbes and communal leaders). A large Warsaw conference in 5694 (1933–1934) issued a joint call; thousands of parcels were subsequently sent.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Baron A. de Gunzburg]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]] | [[Menachem Mendel Rothstein]] | [[Va'ad HaEzra le-Yehudei Rusya]] | [[Agudat ha-Rabbanim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>One of the reasons I came to Poland was to enlist the large Jewish community of Poland to stand ready to help our brothers in Russia…
<ref name="Levin1989p160">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 160.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 32: Sending Money to Russia ==
Explains the official exchange rate (≈1.94 rubles per dollar) versus the black-market rate (5–10 rubles). Direct bank or postal transfers therefore destroyed most of the value. Unofficial channels organized by R. Israel Gurary, R. Shmaryahu Gurary and others delivered 5–8.5 rubles per dollar while minimizing risk to recipients.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Israel Gurary]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Meir Gorkov]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Those who send their money to their relatives through the official bank or post do two evils… the government forces them to exchange it at the official rate…
— Israel Gurary, 1931 <ref name="Levin1989p163">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 163 (quoting Israel Gurary, 1931).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 33: Food and Clothing Parcels ==
Because cash transfers were dangerous and inefficient, the main practical aid became food and clothing parcels (butter, smoked meat, sugar, etc.) sent via Riga. Price lists were circulated; R. Moshe Gurary and R. Israel Jacobson coordinated the American side.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Moshe Gurary]] | [[Israel Jacobson]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>One of the ways of help they request is to send them parcels of foodstuffs via the post… especially kosher meat… and fats such as butter…
<ref name="Levin1989p165">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 165.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 34: The Torgsin Stores ==
From roughly 1932 the Soviet government opened “Torgsin” stores that sold goods only for foreign currency. Relatives abroad could send dollars to a Torgsin address; the recipient received equivalent goods at world prices. This became the preferred method until the stores were closed at the end of 1935.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Meir Gorkov]] | [[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Torgsin]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Send me twenty shekels to the address written on the margin… it is a store the government opened for anyone who comes with foreign currency…
— Meir Gorkov, Adar 5692 (1931–1932) <ref name="Levin1989p166">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 166 (quoting Meir Gorkov, Adar 5692 (1931–1932)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 35: Return to Sending Parcels ==
After the closure of Torgsin (end of 1935) the network reverted to ordinary food and clothing parcels. Committees in Paris, Riga and Tel Aviv (Gurary brothers + Eliezer Krasik) continued the work until the outbreak of war interrupted the routes.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]] | [[Eliezer Krasik]] | [[Mordechai Chefetz]] | [[Shamai Vigan]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Everyone knows that after the closing of the Torgsin the sending of food and clothing parcels is a question of life and existence for a large part of our brothers in Russia.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 14 Elul 5696 (1935–1936) <ref name="Levin1989p168">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 168 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 14 Elul 5696 (1935–1936)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 36: Continuation of the Struggle for Religion in Russia ==
Even after leaving the USSR the Rebbe continued directing the underground work through daring emissaries. Chief among them was R. Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik (“Zhuravitzer”), who traveled as a wandering preacher, founded secret chadarim, study groups and mikvaot, and recruited children for the underground yeshivas. The Rebbe also maintained constant coded correspondence encouraging fixed Torah study, Chassidus and farbrengens. Local reports from Moscow, Kharkov, Kiev, Rostov and elsewhere document the continued spiritual activity.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik (Zhuravitzer)]] | [[Shaul Brook]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>If I had twenty men like him I would overturn the country. “Ven ich volt hobn tzvantsik Yankelekh volt ich iberkern Russland.”
— Rebbe Rayatz about R. Yaakov Maskalik <ref name="Levin1989p172">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 172 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz about R. Yaakov Maskalik).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 37: Intensification of Religious Persecution ==
A long anthology of 1928–1930 letters from dozens of towns describing the escalating campaign: closure and confiscation of synagogues, sealing of mikvaot, arrests of teachers and yeshiva students, forced signatures renouncing teaching, prohibitions on shechita, and pressure to eat chametz on Passover. Yevsektsiya and later the secret police led the drive. Includes the Rebbe’s 1929 call for a public fast signed with the Chofetz Chaim and R. Chaim Ozer.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yevsektsiya]] | [[GPU]] | [[Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik]] | [[Yisrael Meir Kagan (Chofetz Chaim)]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The condition of our brothers the children of Israel in Russia and Ukraine is dreadful beyond measure… nearly three million Jewish souls are in distress… the Yevsektsiya seeks to uproot the Torah and erase the name of Heaven…
<ref name="Levin1989p184">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 184 (from the 5689 (1928–1929) call for a public fast).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 38: The State of the Mikvaot ==
In 1924–1930 the Soviet authorities, primarily through the Yevsektsiya, systematically confiscated, sealed or destroyed the remaining mikvaot in virtually every town, after earlier war-time destruction and post-war reconstruction efforts (supported by the Rebbe). A detailed 1928 alphabetical survey compiled from letters of ~150 towns documents the situation: many mikvaot closed for “repairs,” taken over by the municipal bathhouse authority (which raised prices prohibitively or sealed them), or simply destroyed. Local Jews raised partial funds and sought modest aid from abroad via the Rebbe’s network; the Rebbe continued sending encouragement and small sums. By the early 1930s almost all public mikvaot had been eliminated, forcing reliance on secret or temporary facilities.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]] | [[Mordechai Feinstein]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>They invalidate mikvaot in every place, and there are also many decrees to close synagogues. Perhaps it would be worthwhile for them to decree a public fast among you on the troubles of Israel.
— Yaakov Maskalik, 1928 <ref name="Levin1989p187">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 187 (quoting Yaakov Maskalik, 1928).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>The mikvaot: When years were normal, family purity was fully observed and money was available… Now this question stands in our world with full force… from one side the economic situation is so difficult… and from the other side the attitude of much of the new generation to the whole principle of family purity has also changed…
— Shlomo Yosef Zevin’s 1927 survey <ref name="Levin1989p186">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 186 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin’s 1927 survey).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 39: Persecution of the Rabbis and Those Who Serve in Holiness ==
From the early years of Soviet rule the authorities (initially via the Yevsektsiya, later the GPU/NKVD) targeted rabbis and religious functionaries with personal vilification, heavy taxes, forced resignations, eviction from their homes, confiscation of property, exile and, later, mass arrests, imprisonment and executions. The chapter focuses on 1930 and surrounding years with concrete cases (e.g., R. Alexander Sender Yudasin of Krivoy Rog, R. Menachem Mendel Hilbitz of Zembin, R. Leib Hillel Gluskin of Znamenka, the mass arrest of ~30 rabbis and activists in Minsk after an American visitor publicized conditions). The Rebbe continued to intervene from abroad and to urge support for the remaining rabbis.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Alexander Sender Yudasin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Hilbitz]] | [[Abraham Baruch Pevzner]] | [[Leib Hillel Gluskin]] | [[Levi Yitzchak Schneerson]] | [[GPU]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The reports coming from Russia from the rabbis and those who serve in holiness are shocking, and they inform that the condition of the rabbis there has already descended to a level below which there is nothing… their bread is broken, they are expelled from their dwellings, taxes and levies are imposed upon them in sums that cannot be paid…
— Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) <ref name="Levin1989p210">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 210 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930)).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>In particular in recent times when the sale of bread is only by cards for those who have work and trade, the rabbis… and the elderly who study Torah are hungry for bread without any exaggeration and the situation is terrible and dreadful.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 10 Menachem Av 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p210">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 210 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 10 Menachem Av 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 40: The Lishentsy (Those Deprived of Rights) ==
Rabbis, shochtim, melamdim and other religious functionaries were classified as “lishentsy” (deprived of civic rights) because spiritual work was not recognized as “labor.” Consequences included loss of food ration cards, eviction from nationalized housing, denial of medical care, forced manual labor (wood-chopping etc.), and general social ostracism. The status made normal life nearly impossible and was used to pressure them to resign their posts.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Israel Leib Lipschitz]] | [[Zalman Feiginer]] | [[Nachman Dov Wichnin]] | [[Shmuel Notik]] | [[Lishentsy]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Those deprived of rights, that is, they have no food cards and no means to buy in the collective stores.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 7 Nisan 5690 (1929–1930) <ref name="Levin1989p217">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 217 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 7 Nisan 5690 (1929–1930)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 41: Support for the Rabbis of Russia ==
From exile the Rebbe organized systematic aid for rabbis, yeshiva heads, melamdim and shochtim: food/clothing parcels or Torgsin credits, help for prisoners and exiles, emigration assistance, and support for their children. He sought to establish committees in America, Poland and elsewhere, issued public appeals, and maintained detailed lists of remaining rabbis and mikvaot so that limited funds could be directed where most needed.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Menachem Mendel Rothstein]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]] | [[Agudat ha-Rabbanim]] | [[Va'ad HaEzra]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>From the first hour that the question of the holy vessels in Russia was born, we have not ceased to occupy ourselves with it… the only way to solve this question is through the rabbis abroad… every rabbi in a town or study hall should take upon himself to send one parcel for the rabbis of Russia via Torgsin…
— Rebbe Rayatz, 5692 (1931–1932) <ref name="Levin1989p219">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 219–220 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 5692 (1931–1932)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 42: The Approach to Litvinov ==
In late 1933, when U.S. recognition of the USSR was imminent and Foreign Commissar Maxim Litvinov visited America, the Rebbe coordinated a political campaign. Letters and telegrams were sent to American Jewish leaders and senators (Borah, King, Adler, Dickstein etc.) requesting that the negotiations include relief for Soviet Jewry. A detailed memorandum signed by R. Alter, R. Chaim Ozer Grodzinski, R. Levin and representatives of Agudat Israel, the liberal rabbis and the Jewish Agency demanded: no closure of religious schools, no ban on Hebrew, permission for rabbis to emigrate, food rations for clergy, no closure of synagogues, no ban on shechita or circumcision.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Maxim Litvinov]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]] | [[William Borah]] | [[Cyrus Adler]] | [[Agudat Israel]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>It is important for us to use this occasion for the benefit of our brothers in Russia… the main thing is to ease the decree of emigration… and for those who cannot leave, to ease their condition so that the right to bread and food from the government stores is not taken from them.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 1933–34 <ref name="Levin1989p222">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 222 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 1933–34).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 43: Mass Arrests of Chabad People ==
From 1935 onward the secret police conducted simultaneous night-time round-ups of 10–20 Chabad hasidim in a single locality so that none could warn the others. The charge of belonging to the “Schneersohn movement” or participating in underground yeshivas, illegal minyanim or 19 Kislev farbrengens was sufficient for arrest, exile or worse. One example is the 1935 Malakhovka (near Moscow) operation; R. Zalman Kornitzer managed to escape and warn others by denying his identity.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shneur Zalman Botman]] | [[Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Abraham Dreizin]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>1) You studied in the yeshiva of Schneersohn and taught others his teachings. 2) You prayed in an illegal minyan… 3) You helped the prisoners, the hasidim of Schneersohn… 4) You organized a farbrengen on 19 Kislev…
— the interrogation of Yechiel Michel Rapoport <ref name="Levin1989p224">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 224 (quoting the interrogation of Yechiel Michel Rapoport).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 44: Agents of the Secret Police ==
The GPU/NKVD systematically pressured arrested Chabad activists to become informers by means of solitary confinement, sleep deprivation, bright lights, insects and threats of death. Most refused. One former Chabad hasid ultimately broke under a death sentence and thereafter traveled from town to town denouncing others; his activities are described in later chapters.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Simcha Gorodetsky]] | [[Raphael Nachman Cohen]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Seeing that I admitted nothing and did not inform on anyone, their anger increased and they decided to punish me with the full severity of the law. They put me in solitary confinement for 37 days!… a tiny cell… a small piece of bread and a cup of water… and they took me for interrogation all night so that I could not even snatch a light sleep.
— Simcha Gorodetsky <ref name="Levin1989p226">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 226 (quoting Simcha Gorodetsky).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 45: The Arrests in Moscow and Malakhovka ==
In the summer–autumn of 1935 a wave of arrests struck the Chabad community around Moscow and Malakhovka. Among those taken were R. Shneur Zalman Botman, R. Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik (Zhuravitzer), R. Eliezer Gorelik, R. Meir Avtzon, R. Abba Levin and others. Most were later exiled; R. Maskalik disappeared after further transfer and is presumed to have perished. Coded letters from Moscow and contemporary press reports (Morgen Journal) list the names. Survivors later recounted the interrogations and the subsequent exile in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shneur Zalman Botman]] | [[Yaakov Zechariah Maskalik]] | [[Eliezer Gorelik]] | [[Meir Avtzon]] | [[Abba Levin]] | [[Shlomo Matosov]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Please inform our father and the Anash that they have begun to deal with the matter of “Vayeshev”… and among our brothers also the father of the orphans R. Yaakov b. Yehudit of Zhuravitz…
<ref name="Levin1989p228">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 228 (coded letter, 18 Elul 5695 (1934–1935)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 46: The Arrests in Other Towns ==
Throughout 1935–1939 simultaneous night arrests of Chabad hasidim continued in Rostov, Leningrad, Kharkov, Chernigov, Yekaterinoslav and many smaller towns. Documented waves include the Rosh Hashanah 5696 (1935–1936) arrests in Rostov (including Shamai Vigan and others, sentenced to three years hard labor in Siberia), the 5697 (1936–1937)–98 arrests in Leningrad that eliminated the remaining leadership of the religious community, the 5699 (1938–1939) arrests in Kharkov, and the arrest of R. Levi Yitzchak Schneerson in Yekaterinoslav. Many of those taken later perished in exile or were executed.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shamai Vigan]] | [[Levi Yitzchak Schneerson]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Isaac Raskin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>On the night of the first day of Rosh Hashanah our brothers fell ill [were arrested]… while checking for chametz [house search]…
<ref name="Levin1989p231">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 231 (coded letter from Rostov).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 47: The Life of Chabad People Underground ==
Those who learned they were being sought lived in constant flight: sleeping in forests on the outskirts of Moscow, moving from village to village, or going into deep hiding. Memoirs of R. Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin and others describe weeks of sleeping in the woods, the terror of every noise, and the difficulty of maintaining any communal or family life. Many who remained free continued secret study and farbrengens until they too were caught.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin]] | [[Zalman Shimon Dvorkin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Dubrovsky]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Life under underground conditions grew harder and harder. Certain people revealed that all our young men and boys were listed with them and it was likely they would arrest us all…
— Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin <ref name="Levin1989p233">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 233 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 48: The War and the Flight to Central Asia ==
When Germany invaded in June 1941, Jews (including Chabad hasidim) fled the western border regions toward the interior and especially Central Asia. Long, dangerous journeys by train and boat brought large numbers to Samarkand and Tashkent. Memoirs recount bombings, hunger, travel on the Sabbath under conditions of pikuach nefesh, and the eventual concentration of the surviving Chabad community in Uzbekistan.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin]] | [[Yehuda Leib Levin]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]] | [[Mendel Smordinsky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>When the Germans entered Russia, the authorities began building shelters… every night at ten o’clock a German plane appeared and bombed the city… those who had the means left everything behind and tried to flee to the distant regions… most of the Jews fled to Central Asia, Tashkent and Samarkand…
— Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin <ref name="Levin1989p236">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 236 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 49: The Famine in Samarkand ==
The sudden influx of tens of thousands of refugees into Samarkand in the winter of 1941–42 produced catastrophic famine and epidemics (typhus, malaria). Daily bread rations were only 400 grams, obtained only after hours or nights of waiting; local toughs often seized the bread. Bodies of those who died of starvation lay unburied in the streets. Chabad activists organized a chevra kadisha, hospital visitation by women who brought food, free soup kitchens and mutual aid. Approximately ten prominent Anash and many women and children perished.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yehuda Leib Levin]] | [[Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Deutsch]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In Samarkand we met the famine face to face. Thousands of refugees streamed there and the authorities were unable to feed all these masses. They introduced strict rationing of bread, and each person was allotted no more than four hundred grams a day…
— Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin <ref name="Levin1989p239">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 239 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Sasonkin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 50: Sending Parcels through the Rebbe’s Efforts ==
From New York the Rebbe continued to organize Passover aid (matzah and “maot chitim”) and year-round parcels for the refugees in Central Asia and the remaining Jews in European Russia. He appealed to the Joint Distribution Committee, American rabbinic bodies, Agudat Israel and others, and coordinated shipments via Tehran and the Land of Israel. Lists of addresses were compiled so that parcels could reach specific families.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Ephraim Eliezer Yolles]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]] | [[Agudat Israel]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>This year nothing has been done to send help to the Jews in Russia for the needs of Passover… tens of thousands of families will remain without matzah on the Passover… the only advice is to send them help in cash…
— Rebbe Rayatz to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942) <ref name="Levin1989p242">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 242 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 51: Yeshiva Tomchei Temimim Lubavitch ==
Tomchei Temimim was founded in Elul 1897 in Lubavitch by the Rebbe Rashab and continued under his son the Rebbe Rayatz. It comprised a main yeshiva for older students (zal), intermediate shiurim, and younger cheder classes, with branches in Zembin, Kublicz, Dokshitz, Nevel, Horodishch, Babinovichi and Shezedrin. A branch (“Torat Emet”) was opened in Hebron in 1912. The First World War forced the Rebbe and his family to leave Lubavitch for Rostov in 1916; the yeshiva itself remained in Lubavitch under increasing hardship until its later relocation.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shalom DovBer Schneersohn]] | [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]] | [[Shlomo Zalman Havlin]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Yeshiva Tomchei Temimim Lubavitch was founded in Elul 5657 (1896–1897) and existed for twenty years in the town of Lubavitch, with branches in Zembin, Kublicz, Dokshitz, Nevel, Horodishch, Babinovichi and Shezedrin.
<ref name="Levin1989p244">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 244.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 52: Transfer of the Yeshiva to Kremenchug and Orel ==
As the German front approached Lubavitch in 1918 and economic conditions collapsed, the Rebbe Rashab ordered the yeshiva transferred to Kremenchug. Younger students (cheder and shiurim) went first via Orel; the older zal students followed amid wartime chaos, arrests as suspected spies, and interrupted rail lines. Some groups were delayed for months in Orel, Kharkov and elsewhere before reaching Kremenchug.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shalom DovBer Schneersohn]] | [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yehoshua Arash]] | [[Shalom Kuratin]] | [[Eliezer Kaplan]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In Lubavitch a great uproar arose from the approach of the Germans, and the cost of living also rose greatly… and there is no money with them… they decided to leave Lubavitch for the two reasons above, and after exchange of telegrams… I wrote them that they should transfer to Kremenchug…
— Rebbe Rashab, 28 Adar 5678 (1917–1918) <ref name="Levin1989p248">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 248 (quoting Rebbe Rashab, 28 Adar 5678 (1917–1918)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 53: Adventures on the Road and the Yeshiva in Kharkov (1918) ==
One group of students was arrested en route near Poltava, falsely accused of espionage, and nearly shot before local hasidim intervened. Another group was stranded in Kharkov for the entire summer of 1918 and continued studies there under temporary supervision before proceeding to Kremenchug. Local Anash in Kharkov provided housing and support.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Baruch Friedman]] | [[Shalom Kuratin]] | [[Yaakov Otaysker]] | [[Zalman Shimon Dvorkin]]

== Chapter 54: The Last Group Leaves Lubavitch ==
A third group reached only Smolensk, learned of the Rebbe’s preference that the older students remain in Lubavitch if possible, and returned. The final departure from Lubavitch took place toward the end of Menachem Av 5678 (1917–1918); remaining staff hid valuables and left with heavy hearts, hoping the exile would be temporary.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Shmuel Gronem Esterman]] | [[Eliezer Kaplan]] | [[Shalom Kuratin]]

== Chapter 55: The Yeshiva in Kremenchug (1918–1930) ==
From late 1918 until Iyar 1930 the main younger divisions of Tomchei Temimim operated in Kremenchug under the overall direction of the Rebbes in Rostov. Local benefactors (Gurary, Krichevsky families) supplied buildings; mashpi’im and mashgichim included R. Shalom Kuratin, R. Menachem Mendel Gribov, R. Israel Noach Belinitzky and others. Peak enrollment reached ~120 children. The branch was repeatedly searched by the Yevsektsiya and finally closed in 1930 when R. Gribov was arrested; remaining students were dispersed to other underground locations.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Menachem Mendel Gribov]] | [[Israel Noach Belinitzky]] | [[Meir Avtzon]] | [[Benzion Maroz]] | [[Yehuda Eber]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>As the pressure to close the yeshiva in Kremenchug grew, the Rebbe ordered that the number of students—then forty—be reduced… and the class was split, and my class went to Polotsk together with the rosh yeshiva R. Yechezkel Himmelfarb.
— Aharon Kahanov <ref name="Levin1989p254">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 254 (quoting Aharon Kahanov).</ref></blockquote>

=== Chapters 57–59: Branches in Kherson, Alexandri and Harol (1917–1920) ===
Short-lived branches operated in Kherson (under R. Eliezer Tchitcherskier and later R. Mordechai Perlov), the agricultural colony Alexandri (ten older students for one summer under R. Gershon Chen), and Harol (about forty younger students under R. Yehoshua Arash). These were temporary wartime or post-war arrangements that closed with the intensification of civil-war chaos and later Soviet pressure.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Eliezer Tchitcherskier]] | [[Mordechai Perlov]] | [[Gershon Chen]] | [[Yehoshua Arash]] | [[Elazar Moshe Madeievsky]]

== Chapter 56: The Yeshiva in Rostov (1920–1921) ==
After the passing of the Rebbe Rashab (2 Nisan 5680 (1919–1920)) the Rebbe Rayatz transferred the older students from Kremenchug to Rostov so that the yeshiva would be “around me.” R. Shmuel Gronem Esterman served as acting director and R. Yitzchak Goldin as his deputy. The students arrived in rags; the Rebbe personally supervised their material and spiritual needs. The branch functioned for less than a year before further Soviet pressure forced further dispersal.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmuel Gronem Esterman]] | [[Yitzchak Goldin]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>After Pesach he began to say, “I want Tomchei Temimim to be around me.” Tomchei Temimim was then in Kremenchug… When he decided to bring Tomchei Temimim to Rostov, R. Shmuel Gronem was appointed acting director…
— Yitzchak Goldin <ref name="Levin1989p260">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 260 (quoting Yitzchak Goldin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 57: The State of the Mikvaot ==
Details the systematic confiscation and closure of ritual baths (mikvaot) across Soviet Russia, especially intensifying in the mid-to-late 1920s (תרפ"ה–תר"ץ). After earlier wartime destruction and postwar reconstruction efforts (supported by the Rebbe Rayatz via funds and letters), authorities seized remaining public mikvaot, often attached to bathhouses under municipal control. Reports from approximately 150 towns in summer 1928 (compiled from letters to the Rebbe) describe closures due to high fees, lack of heating, structural decay, poverty preventing repairs, and ideological pressure. Many communities built or maintained underground/private mikvaot at great personal risk and cost; the Rebbe and his emissaries (e.g., R. Yaakov Zakhar, R. Binyamin Grodetsky) coordinated limited aid. Later years saw further closures, arrests of those maintaining them, and reliance on secret mikvaot into the 1930s.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Yaakov Zakhar]] | [[Binyamin Grodetsky]] | [[Mordechai Feinstein]] | [[Yehuda Reizik]] | [[Shaul Brook]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The mikvaot: In normal years family purity was fully observed… Now the question stands in our world with full force… In one city the bathhouse burned, in the second it was closed by the government (via the Yevsektsiya), in the third it collapsed from age, in the fourth it was destroyed in the pogroms…
— Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927) <ref name="Levin1989p186">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 186 (quoting Shlomo Yosef Zevin survey, late Shevat 5687 (1926–1927)).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>They are invalidating mikvaot everywhere, and also many decrees to close synagogues. Perhaps it is worthwhile to decree a public fast among you over the troubles of Israel.
— Yaakov Zakhar letter, 5688 (1927–1928) <ref name="Levin1989p187">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 187 (quoting Yaakov Zakhar letter, 5688 (1927–1928)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 58: Persecutions Against the Rabbis and Those Serving in Holiness ==
Surveys the escalating campaign against rabbis and religious functionaries from the early Soviet years, intensifying in 1929–1933 (תר"ץ–תרצ"ג). Methods included personal smears, deprivation of rights, crushing taxes (often leading to arrest for non-payment), expulsion from homes, confiscation of property, and forced resignations. Examples include the 1930 mass arrest of ~30 rabbis and activists in Minsk (following a visit by American Rabbi Glazer), individual exiles (e.g., R. Alexander Sander Yudasin of Krivoi Rog, R. Menachem Mendel Hilkevitz of Zemlin), and arrests linked to mikvaot or underground teaching. The Rebbe Rayatz, then abroad, organized diplomatic interventions (telegrams to U.S. officials, etc.); some releases occurred, but many remained imprisoned or emigrated later.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Alexander Sander Yudasin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Hilkevitz]] | [[Abraham Baruch Pevzner]] | [[Moshe Axelrod]] | [[Raphael Nachman Cohen]] | [[Levi Yitzchak Schneerson]] | [[Yevsektsiya]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The reports coming from Russia from the rabbis and those who serve in holiness are terrifying… Their situation has already descended to a level from which there is no lower… They are given over to shame and disgrace, their livelihood is broken, they are expelled from their dwellings, taxes and imposts are imposed on them in amounts that it is impossible to pay…
— Rebbe Rayatz letter, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) <ref name="Levin1989p210">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 210 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz letter, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930)).</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>In particular in recent times when the sale of bread is only on ration cards to those with work and labor, the rabbis… who keep the watch of the holy and the elderly who study Torah are hungry for bread without any support, and the situation is terrible and dreadful.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 10 Marcheshvan 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p210">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 210 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 10 Marcheshvan 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>



== Chapter 59: Lishentzes (Those Deprived of Rights) ==
Explains the status of “lishentzes” – citizens stripped of civil rights because religious work (rabbinate, ritual slaughter, teaching) was not recognized as productive labor. Consequences included exclusion from food ration cards, inability to live in nationalized housing, denial of medical care, forced unpaid labor (e.g., wood-cutting), and social stigma. Rabbis and shochetim were primary targets; many fled or went underground. Examples from letters of R. Israel Leib Lipschitz, R. Zalman Poizner, R. Nachman Dov Vichnin and others.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Israel Leib Lipschitz]] | [[Zalman Poizner]] | [[Nachman Dov Vichnin]] | [[Shmuel Notik]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Two things, the “living” from the books of rights and the accused of violating freedom – their translation in the language of the Yevsektsiya is: to take everything he has in the house and stand him naked as the day he was born and seat him in prison for dozens of months, and afterward send him to a place of exile for three years and more.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929) <ref name="Levin1989p217">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 217 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 27 Nisan 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 60: Support for the Rabbis of Russia ==
Documents the Rebbe Rayatz’s extensive fundraising and organizational efforts (from the late 1920s into the 1930s) to aid rabbis, yeshiva heads, teachers and shochetim remaining in the USSR. Appeals to the Agudath Harabbanim of America, European rabbis (including R. Chaim Ozer Grodzinski), and individuals; proposals for systematic monthly packages via Torgsin; establishment of committees; compilation of lists of rabbis, shochetim and towns lacking mikvaot. Despite limited success and internal debates, the Rebbe continued personal interventions even while ill.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]] | [[Menachem Mendel Rothstein]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Agudath Harabbanim]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Help is needed urgently without delay, both for the expenses of those who have the possibility of leaving the country, and to quiet the hunger of those who for the time being must remain in the country.
— Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) <ref name="Levin1989p219">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 219 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz, 28 Shevat 5690 (1929–1930)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 61: The Intervention with Litvinov ==
In late 1933–early 1934, as the U.S. prepared to recognize the USSR, the Rebbe (then in Warsaw) organized a coordinated diplomatic effort timed with Foreign Commissar Maxim Litvinov’s visit to America. Telegrams and memoranda were sent to U.S. senators (Borah, King), Congressman Dickstein, Cyrus Adler and others, and a formal memorandum signed by leading rabbis and Jewish organizations demanded: non-closure of religious schools, permission for rabbis to emigrate, access to state food stores, non-closure of synagogues, and non-prohibition of shechita and circumcision. One concrete result was the later release of 23 border-crossing prisoners (detailed in chapter קיג).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Maxim Litvinov]] | [[Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]] | [[Yaakov Rosenheim]] | [[Nahum Sokolow]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>1. That the Soviet government not close the schools of the Orthodox; 2. That it not confiscate the Hebrew language and its literature; 3. That it permit the rabbis of Russia to emigrate abroad…
— contemporary newspaper summary of the memorandum <ref name="Levin1989p222">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 222 (quoting contemporary newspaper summary of the memorandum).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 62: Mass Arrests of Chabad Hasidim ==
From the mid-1930s (especially 1935 onward), the NKVD conducted coordinated nighttime raids arresting 10–20 Chabad hasidim at once to prevent warning others. Charges centered on affiliation with the “Chabad movement”: studying/teaching Chassidus, illegal prayer quorums, aiding prisoners and their families, and celebrating 19 Kislev. Examples include the 1935 Malakhovka/Moscow roundup (Botman, Goldin, Gorelik, Avtzon, Levin and others) and earlier Moscow incidents. Many were exiled; some escaped after tip-offs.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shneur Zalman Botman]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Abraham Drizin]] | [[Yaakov Zakhar]] | [[Yitzchak Goldin]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>1) You studied in Schneersohn’s yeshiva and also taught others his teachings. 2) You prayed in an illegal minyan forbidden by law. 3) You helped prisoners, Schneersohn’s hasidim… 4) You organized a farbrengen… on 19 Kislev.
— Yechiel Michel Rappoport’s account of his 1939 arrest <ref name="Levin1989p224">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 224 (quoting Yechiel Michel Rappoport’s account of his 1939 arrest).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 63: Agents of the Secret Police ==
Describes NKVD pressure on arrested hasidim to become informers, revealing names of other Chabad members in order to dismantle the underground network. Most refused despite severe torture (solitary confinement, sleep deprivation, extreme lighting, vermin). One former hasid (under death sentence) eventually collaborated and traveled identifying hasidim for arrest. R. Raphael Nachman Cohen’s refusal led to a three-year exile.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Raphael Nachman Cohen]] | [[Simcha Gorodetsky]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Seeing that I admitted nothing and informed on no one – their anger and wrath increased and they decided to punish me with the full severity of the law. They put me in solitary for 37 days…
— Simcha Gorodetsky <ref name="Levin1989p226">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 226 (quoting Simcha Gorodetsky).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 64: The Arrests in Moscow and Malakhovka ==
Focuses on the 1935 wave of arrests in the Moscow area, particularly the Chabad settlement in Malakhovka. Triggered in part by a collaborator, the NKVD arrested key figures including R. Shneur Zalman Botman (who had taken over a minyan and property after his brother-in-law’s departure to Eretz Yisrael), R. Yitzchak Goldin, R. Eliezer Gorelik and son, R. Meir Avtzon, R. Abraham Aba Levin, R. Shlomo Matusof and others. Some (e.g., R. Abraham Drizin) escaped; most were sentenced to exile. R. Yaakov Zakhar disappeared after further transfer. Contemporary reports in foreign Yiddish press (Morgen Journal) listed the arrested and noted that some Jews cut their beards to avoid suspicion. The Rebbe’s secretariat in Warsaw received encrypted reports and coordinated limited aid.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shneur Zalman Botman]] | [[Yaakov Zakhar]] | [[Yitzchak Goldin]] | [[Eliezer Gorelik]] | [[Meir Avtzon]] | [[Abraham Drizin]] | [[Shlomo Matusof]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Please inform our father and Anash that they have begun to deal with the matter of Parashat Vayeshev of Parashat Shishi… and among our brothers also the father of orphans R. Yaakov son of Yehudit of Zhuravitz…
<ref name="Levin1989p229">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 229 (encrypted letter from Moscow, 18 Elul 5695 (1934–1935)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 65: Arrests in Other Towns ==
Details the continuation of mass and individual arrests of Chabad hasidim across Russia from 1935–1939 (תרצ"ה–תרצ"ט). Immediately after the Moscow/Malakhovka wave, a group was arrested in Rostov (including near the Rebbe Rashab’s ohel) on Rosh Hashanah 5696 (1935–1936); further arrests hit Kharkov (Purim 5699 (1938–1939), involving R. Avraham Baruch Pevzner, R. Nachum Yitzchak Pinson, R. Tzemach Gurevitz), Chernigov, Yekaterinoslav (including R. Levi Yitzchak Schneerson on 9 Nisan 5699 (1938–1939)), Leningrad (multiple waves in 5697 (1936–1937)–5698 (1937–1938) wiping out much of the Orthodox leadership), Yegoryevsk and other towns. Sentences typically ranged from three to ten years of hard labor in Siberia; some were executed. Encrypted letters and later memoirs (Shashunkin, Gorkov, Chitrik) document the scope.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shamai Vigan]] | [[David Labak]] | [[Levi Yitzchak Schneerson]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Yitzchak Raskin]] | [[Abraham Baruch Pevzner]] | [[Nachum Yitzchak Pinson]] | [[NKVD]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Our friend Shamai has fallen ill and several more of Anash from our city… and they have been imprisoned for more than a month… and their families are literally perishing of hunger.
— Chaim Padnas letter <ref name="Levin1989p231">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 231 (quoting Chaim Padnas letter).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 66: Life of Chabad Hasidim in the Underground ==
Describes the clandestine existence of those who received advance warning and fled before arrest. Hasidim moved constantly between villages, slept in forests near Moscow, changed residences, and avoided known gathering places. R. Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin’s memoir recounts leaving Leningrad just in time (warning R. Elchanan Marozov and R. Yitzchak Raskin, who were later arrested and disappeared), sleeping in the woods for weeks in Elul, and the constant fear of night-time raids. Exile terms lengthened to ten years or more; correspondence was often forbidden. Many never returned.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Yitzchak Raskin]] | [[Zalman Shimon Dvorkin]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The underground life became harder and harder. Certain people revealed in our ears that all our young men and boys are listed with them and it is near that they will arrest all of us… I decided that the time had come to leave Leningrad.
— Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin, *Zikhronotai* <ref name="Levin1989p233">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 233 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin, *Zikhronotai*).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 67: The War and the Flight to Central Asia ==
With the German invasion in summer 1941 (תש"א), Jews in the western border regions fled eastward; many Chabad hasidim reached Central Asia, concentrating in Samarkand and Tashkent. Memoirs (Shashunkin, Gorodetsky, others) recount frantic evacuations by train under bombardment, selling household goods at a loss, traveling for weeks, and arriving in Uzbekistan. Some groups waited until after Shabbat Bereshit before leaving Kharkov and other cities. Upon arrival the Rebbe Rayatz (in New York) sought news through Bukharan contacts and later corresponded via Eretz Yisrael.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]] | [[Yehuda Leib Levin]] | [[Mendel Smordinsky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>When the Germans invaded, the inhabitants of Russia began to flee from the border cities into the interior… The Jews fled mainly to the cities of Central Asia. Many Jews, among them Anash, then settled in the towns of Samarkand and Tashkent.
<ref name="Levin1989p236">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 236.</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 68: The Famine in Samarkand ==
Immediately upon the arrival of the refugees in early winter 5702 (1941), a severe famine struck Samarkand. Rations were limited to ~400 grams of bread per person; lines were chaotic and Uzbek locals sometimes seized supplies. Lack of sanitation led to typhus and other epidemics. Approximately ten leading hasidim died of hunger or disease in the first months, plus many women and children. R. Yehuda Leib Levin organized a Chevra Kadisha to bury the dead properly and, together with women’s groups, initiated hospital visits and food distribution that saved many lives. Conditions improved gradually by summer 5702 (1941–1942) as weaving and other trades were established; mutual aid remained strong.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yehuda Leib Levin]] | [[Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Deutsch]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In Samarkand we met the famine face to face. Thousands of refugees streamed there and the authorities were unable to feed all those multitudes… Obtaining the bread ration was a terrible nightmare.
— Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin <ref name="Levin1989p239">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 239 (quoting Nachum Shmaryahu Shashunkin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 69: Dispatch of Packages through the Rebbe’s Efforts ==
The Rebbe Rayatz’s first wartime priority was Passover needs. In Adar 5702 (1941–1942) he appealed urgently to the Joint Distribution Committee and dozens of rabbinical and communal bodies for cash aid (requesting at least 100,000 shekels) so that tens of thousands of Soviet Jewish families would not lack matzah. He coordinated telegrams to the Chief Rabbinate in Jerusalem, American Agudath Harabbanim, and others. Later years saw continued shipment of Passover packages via Tehran and Eretz Yisrael once address lists became available. The chapter closes the general narrative of Chabad life in the USSR and transitions to the dedicated section on the Tomchei Temimim network (chapters נא–צח).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Ephraim Eliezer Yolles]] | [[Joint Distribution Committee]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>This year nothing has been done to send help to the Jews in Russia for the needs of the Passover holiday… According to the situation, tens of thousands of families will remain without matzah… and the only solution is to send them help in cash.
— Rebbe Rayatz appeal to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942) <ref name="Levin1989p242">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 242 (quoting Rebbe Rayatz appeal to the Joint, 12 Adar 5702 (1941–1942)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 70: Yeshiva Tomchei Temimim of Lubavitch ==
Brief historical overview of the founding of Tomchei Temimim in Elul 5657 (1896) in Lubavitch by the Rebbe Rashab, with early branches in towns such as Zembin, Kobylnik, Dokshitz, Nevel, Haradok, Babinovichi and Shchedrin. A Hebron branch (“Torat Emet”) opened in 5672 (1911–1912). The World War I crisis closed many branches; Turkish authorities forced the return of students from Hebron. The Rebbe Rashab and his son the Rebbe Rayatz labored to sustain the institution. In early 5676 (1915–1916) they left Lubavitch for Rostov, leaving the yeshiva temporarily isolated.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shalom DovBer Schneersohn]] | [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Zalman Havlin]] | [[Tomchei Temimim]]

== Chapter 71: Transfer of the Yeshiva to Kremenchug and Ariel ==
In 5678 (1917–1918), with the German advance and Bolshevik takeover disrupting supplies and communications, the Rebbe Rashab ordered the transfer from Lubavitch to Kremenchug. Younger divisions (chedarim and shiurim) went first and stayed temporarily in Ariel; older students followed. Local benefactors (Krichevsky) provided buildings. Travel was hazardous.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shalom DovBer Schneersohn]] | [[Yehuda Chitrik]] | [[Michael Yehuda Leib Cohen]] | [[Pinchas Krichevsky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>My father came to Lubavitch and related that the situation was extremely critical, that the German was about to enter Lubavitch… and he took all the students of the chedarim and shiurim with their teachers, and we traveled as far as the city of Ariel…
— Michael Yehuda Leib Cohen <ref name="Levin1989p245">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 245 (quoting Michael Yehuda Leib Cohen).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 72: Adventures on the Way ==
Details the chaotic transfer of older students. Some groups were delayed or diverted; one party was falsely accused of espionage near Poltava, nearly executed, and rescued by local hasidim (including intervention by R. Tzvi Gurary). Communications with the Rebbe in Rostov were intermittent; some students remained temporarily in Lubavitch or other towns on the Rebbe’s instruction.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Shalom Kuratin]] | [[Eliezer Kaplan]] | [[Tzvi Gurary]] | [[Mordechai Aharon Friedman]]

== Chapter 73: The Yeshiva in Kharkov (5678 (1917–1918)) ==
A group of students stranded in Kharkov for the summer of 5678 (1917–1918) continued studies there under temporary supervision (R. Baruch Friedman as mashgiach). Local Anash (including R. Yaakov Otaysker) provided housing and support in former Talmud Torah buildings. They remained until late summer when roads reopened and they proceeded to Kremenchug. Additional groups studied in Kharkov in later years.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Baruch Friedman]] | [[Shalom Kuratin]] | [[Yaakov Otaysker]] | [[Zalman Shimon Dvorkin]]

== Chapter 74: The Last Group Leaves Lubavitch ==
A third group reached only Smolensk, learned of the Rebbe’s preference that older students remain in Lubavitch if possible, and returned. The final departure from Lubavitch took place toward the end of Menachem Av 5678 (1917–1918); remaining staff hid valuables and left with heavy hearts, hoping the exile would be temporary.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Shmuel Gronem Esterman]] | [[Eliezer Kaplan]] | [[Shalom Kuratin]]

== Chapter 75: The Yeshiva in Kremenchug (5678 (1917–1918)–5690 (1929–1930)) ==
From late 5678 (1917–1918) until Iyar 5690 (1929–1930) the main younger divisions operated in Kremenchug under overall direction from Rostov. Local benefactors (Gurary, Krichevsky) supplied buildings; mashpi’im and mashgichim included R. Shalom Kuratin, R. Menachem Mendel Gribov, R. Israel Noach Belinitzky and others. Peak enrollment reached ~120 children. Repeatedly searched by the Yevsektsiya; finally closed in 5690 (1929–1930) when R. Gribov was arrested; remaining students dispersed to other underground locations.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Menachem Mendel Gribov]] | [[Israel Noach Belinitzky]] | [[Meir Avtzon]] | [[Benzion Maroz]] | [[Yehuda Eber]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>As the pressure to close the yeshiva in Kremenchug grew, the Rebbe ordered that the number of students—then forty—be reduced… and the class was split, and my class went to Polotsk together with the rosh yeshiva R. Yechezkel Himmelfarb.
— Aharon Kahanov <ref name="Levin1989p254">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 254 (quoting Aharon Kahanov).</ref></blockquote>

=== Chapters 57–59: Branches in Kherson, Alexandri and Harol (5677 (1916–1917)–5680 (1919–1920)) ===
Short-lived branches operated in Kherson (under R. Eliezer Tchitcherskier and later R. Mordechai Perlov; up to ~50 students), the agricultural colony Alexandri (ten older students for one summer under R. Gershon Chen), and Harol (~40 younger students under R. Yehoshua Arash). These were temporary wartime or early-Soviet arrangements that closed amid civil-war chaos and later pressure.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Eliezer Tchitcherskier]] | [[Mordechai Perlov]] | [[Gershon Chen]] | [[Yehoshua Arash]] | [[Elazar Moshe Madeievsky]]

== Chapter 76: The Yeshiva in Rostov (5680 (1919–1920)–5681 (1920–1921)) ==
After the passing of the Rebbe Rashab (2 Nisan 5680 (1919–1920)) the Rebbe Rayatz transferred the older students from Kremenchug to Rostov so that the yeshiva would be “around me.” R. Shmuel Gronem Esterman served as acting director and R. Yitzchak Goldin as his deputy. The students arrived in rags; the Rebbe personally supervised their material and spiritual needs. The branch functioned for less than a year before further Soviet pressure forced further dispersal.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmuel Gronem Esterman]] | [[Yitzchak Goldin]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>After Pesach he began to say, “I want Tomchei Temimim to be around me.” Tomchei Temimim was then in Kremenchug… When he decided to bring Tomchei Temimim to Rostov, R. Shmuel Gronem was appointed acting director…
— Yitzchak Goldin <ref name="Levin1989p260">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 260 (quoting Yitzchak Goldin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 77: The Yeshiva in Poltava (5681 (1920–1921)–5683 (1922–1923)) ==
After the Rostov branch closed, most older students transferred to Poltava, where the yeshiva operated for nearly two years (until before Pesach 5683 (1922–1923)). Early arrivals included R. Zalman Shimon Dvorkin and others; local Anash (R. Shlomo Itkin, R. Shmuel Dobruskin) took on support. Mashpi’im included R. Shmuel Leib Levin and later R. Yechezkel Feigin. Students lived in extreme poverty (sleeping on tables and benches, wearing sackcloth), yet studied with great diligence in Nigleh and Chassidus. The Rebbe Rayatz sent letters of encouragement. The branch was raided by the Cheka/Yevsektsiya just before Pesach 5683 (1922–1923); younger students under 18 were ordered to leave.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Zalman Shimon Dvorkin]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Shmuel Leib Levin]] | [[Shlomo Itkin]] | [[Yehuda Eber]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>After they arrested our Rebbe and confiscated all that was his, most of the yeshiva students in Rostov went to their homes… the great poverty that prevailed then in Rostov and the infectious diseases… precluded the possibility of continuing the yeshiva in Rostov.
— Zalman Shimon Dvorkin <ref name="Levin1989p266">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 266 (quoting Zalman Shimon Dvorkin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 78: Transfer of the Yeshiva to Nevel, Kremenchug and Kharkov ==
Following the Poltava raid, students dispersed in small groups to Nevel, Kremenchug and Kharkov. In Nevel a group was arrested almost immediately. The Rebbe directed remaining students to gather in Kharkov for the summer of 5683 (1922–1923) under temporary arrangements. R. Yechezkel Feigin coordinated the moves.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Israel Noach Belinitzky]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetsky]]

=== Chapters 63–64: Branches in Vulabin and Homel (5681 (1920–1921)–5682 (1921–1922)) ===
While the main body was in Poltava, local Anash opened short-lived branches in Vulabin (under R. Moshe Axelrod) and Homel (under R. Yechezkel Feigin and R. Israel Jacobson). Both were designated “Ma’arechet Tomchei Temimim of Lubavitch” and supported by local funds. The Homel branch faced rivalry with a Novardok group and later pressure from the Yevsektsiya.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Moshe Axelrod]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Israel Jacobson]] | [[Baruch Duchman]]

== Chapter 79: Return of the Yeshiva to Rostov (5684 (1923–1924)) ==
In Tishrei 5684 (1923–1924) the Rebbe Rayatz ordered the return of the older students to Rostov so the yeshiva would again be near him. Local communal figures with government connections secured a suitable building on Vorontsovska Street for students over 18. The branch operated only half a year before a search of the Rebbe’s home forced him (and the yeshiva) to leave Rostov.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Yehuda Eber]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]]

== Chapter 80: Return to Kharkov and Nevel ==
After the Rebbe left Rostov for Leningrad, the central yeshiva moved back to Kharkov (and a parallel division to Nevel). A small group remained in Rostov temporarily to learn shechita. From summer 5684 (1923–1924) until 5689 (1928–1929) the main network operated primarily between Kharkov and Nevel under the overall direction of R. Yechezkel Feigin, with additional branches in Kremenchug, Ramen, Polotsk, Vitebsk and elsewhere.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Israel Noach Belinitzky]] | [[Yehuda Eber]]

== Chapter 81: The Yeshiva in Kharkov (5684 (1923–1924)–5689 (1928–1929)) ==
The Kharkov branch functioned from summer 5684 (1923–1924) until late summer 5689 (1928–1929). Enrollment fluctuated (roughly 25–35 at times); mashgichim included R. Yehoshua Karp, R. Yitzchak Leib Neishuler and others. Older students were periodically transferred to Nevel. A 5688 (1927–1928) raid led to protocols against the hosts; the Rebbe protested via Prof. Haffkine. Studies continued underground (including a brief period in a village house) until final closure.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yehoshua Karp]] | [[Yitzchak Leib Neishuler]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Zalman Shimon Dvorkin]]

== Chapter 82: The Yeshiva and Rabbinical Seminary in Nevel (5684 (1923–1924)–5689 (1928–1929)) ==
From summer 5684 (1923–1924) the Nevel branch (and from 5685 (1924–1925) a dedicated “Beit Midrash for Rabbis and Shochetim”) became a major center. Directed by R. Yehuda Eber (rosh yeshiva/mashgiach) and R. Shmuel Levitin (seminary). Older students from Kharkov were transferred here in 5687 (1926–1927). Peak numbers reached ~70 in the older division. Closed in Kislev 5689 (1928–1929) amid arrests (including R. Levitin, who was later exiled to Siberia). The seminary aimed to produce rabbis and shochetim under severe material hardship.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yehuda Eber]] | [[Shmuel Levitin]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Meir Avtzon]] | [[David Okunov]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The Beit Midrash for Rabbis exists entirely on the support of the budget. Its purpose is to train and appoint rabbis and shochetim… From lack of money we are forced to reject many who wish to be accepted. The expenses of the institution are 50 rubles per person per month…
<ref name="Levin1989p282">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 282 (from the 5689 (1928–1929) budget summary prepared by the Rebbe’s committee).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 83: The Yeshiva in Polotsk (5686 (1925–1926)–5689 (1928–1929)) ==
The Polotsk branch of Tomchei Temimim opened at the beginning of summer 5686 (1925–1926) and continued until late winter 5689 (1928–1929). It was founded by R. Avraham Dreizin (Mayorer) who brought a small group of students (including R. Israel Shimon Kalmanson, R. Zalman Koratin and R. Dovber Chefetz) from Nevel. R. Yechezkel Himelstein later replaced Dreizin when the latter moved to open the Vitebsk branch. The mashpia in the town and yeshiva throughout was R. Shlomo Chaim Kesselman (sent by the Rebbe Rayatz already in 5682 (1921–1922)). Peak numbers reached around fifty students. In late winter 5689 (1928–1929) the branch was closed; Kesselman was arrested (his second arrest in Polotsk) and later exiled to Poltava, where he continued teaching small groups of students. Many students later listed Polotsk among their places of study.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Avraham Dreizin]] | [[Yechezkel Himelstein]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Israel Shimon Kalmanson]] | [[Zalman Koratin]] | [[Pesach Friedkin]] | [[Yehuda Eber]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In Tomchei Temimim, thank God, another branch was added in Polotsk. The shiur is given there by Avraham Dreizin… with students numbering about fifty or more.
— letters of 5686 (1925–1926) <ref name="Levin1989p290">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 290 (quoting letters of 5686 (1925–1926)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 84: The Yeshiva in Romny (5685 (1924–1925)–5688 (1927–1928)) ==
A local cheder had existed in Romny since 5676 (1915–1916), but a full Tomchei Temimim branch opened in 5685 (1924–1925) and operated until the beginning of summer 5688 (1927–1928). R. Yaakov Gorary served as rosh yeshiva; R. Yechezkel Greenfess provided early support. Students (including R. David Okunov, R. Levi Yitzchak Shapiro and R. Nachum Volasov) lived and studied in the synagogue. The branch was closed after repeated raids and protocols. In 5688 (1927–1928) R. Gorary was sentenced to five months of forced labor (later mitigated by an amnesty in one case). Contemporary reports in Sha’arei Zion noted the trial of the local shochet for maintaining a cheder.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yaakov Gorary]] | [[Yechezkel Greenfess]] | [[David Okunov]] | [[Levi Yitzchak Shapiro]] | [[Nachum Volasov]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>For three years this enterprise (yeshiva) has existed here. In the first year they began opposing it… This year in Tevet they again made a protocol… and after all the efforts they sentenced me to five months of forced labor.
— R. Yaakov Gorary, summer 5688 (1927–1928) <ref name="Levin1989p293">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 293 (quoting R. Yaakov Gorary, summer 5688 (1927–1928)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 85: The Yeshiva in Astashkov (5686 (1925–1926)) ==
A short-lived branch operated in the small town of Astashkov (near Nikolaev) in 5686 (1925–1926) under the maggid shiur R. Yitzchak Leib Neishuler. It is mentioned in several contemporary letters and in students’ later questionnaires, but little detailed information survives. By the following year Neishuler himself is recorded in Kharkov and the town no longer appears among active branches.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yitzchak Leib Neishuler]] | [[Benzion Shemtov]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]]

== Chapter 86: The Yeshiva in Vitebsk (5687 (1926–1927)–5691 (1930–1931)) ==
The Vitebsk branch opened at the beginning of summer 5687 (1926–1927) when R. Avraham Dreizin arrived from Polotsk with a group of students. It rapidly became the central yeshiva in Russia, peaking at about ninety students in summer 5688 (1927–1928) and operating in several local synagogues (including the Chabad shul and women’s galleries). R. Yehuda Eber gave shiurim; other mashgichim and mashpi’im included R. Zalman Levitin, R. Nachum Labkovsky, R. Elchanan Marozov and R. Rafael Cohen. After the closure of Nevel (Kislev 5689 (1928–1929)) and Polotsk, additional students and staff transferred here. Studies continued under extreme secrecy (doors and curtains closed, learning by weak lamp light). The branch was finally closed in late winter 5691 (1930–1931) after a raid around Purim; students under eighteen were expelled while older individuals faced multi-year sentences of hard labor or exile. Many students later listed Vitebsk among their places of study.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Avraham Dreizin]] | [[Yehuda Eber]] | [[Zalman Levitin]] | [[Nachum Labkovsky]] | [[Elchanan Marozov]] | [[Rafael Cohen]] | [[Israel Shimon Kalmanson]] | [[Menachem Mendel Futerfas]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In Vitebsk for the summer period, ninety students; and if not for the difficult situation there would be many more.
— R. Yechezkel Feigin, summer 5688 (1927–1928) <ref name="Levin1989p295">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 295 (quoting R. Yechezkel Feigin, summer 5688 (1927–1928)).</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>The order of study began every day at 4:30 in the morning. At the appointed hour all the students were already in place.
— a student’s memoir <ref name="Levin1989p296">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 296 (quoting a student’s memoir).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 87: The Yeshiva in Leningrad (5689 (1928–1929)–5692 (1931–1932)) ==
After the closure of the Nevel branch, a group of older students transferred to Leningrad in winter 5689 (1928–1929) and studied there for about one year (until winter 5690 (1929–1930)). A smaller group continued from summer 5691 (1930–1931) until winter 5692 (1931–1932). R. Nissan Nemanov served as mashpia. The branch operated in a synagogue under conditions of extreme secrecy. In winter 5690 (1929–1930) Nemanov was arrested on the street and sentenced to three years’ exile (later reduced); R. Shimon Lazarov (rabbi of the Chabad community) and his son were also arrested and sentenced to hard labor. Contemporary reports in Sha’arei Zion and private letters describe the arrests, the exile of Nemanov and Lazarov to Arkhangelsk, and the general atmosphere of fear. After the Vitebsk closure a further small group studied briefly in Leningrad until the Rebbe Rayatz (then in Riga) instructed them to find work and attempt to leave Russia.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Shimon Lazarov]] | [[Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin]] | [[Israel Shimon Kalmanson]] | [[Yehuda Eber]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>When it became known to the authorities that there was an underground yeshiva in Leningrad, they arrested R. Nissan in the middle of the street and exiled him for three years.
— R. Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin <ref name="Levin1989p297">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 297 (quoting R. Nachum Shmaryahu Shushkin).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 88: The Yeshiva in Yekaterinoslav (5689 (1928–1929)–5691 (1930–1931)) ==
The branch opened in the middle of winter 5689 (1928–1929) after students fled the closure of Nevel and later Kharkov. It operated until the middle of winter 5690 (1929–1930), after which a smaller group continued for about another year. Mashgichim included R. Menachem Mendel Futerfas and R. Nachum Labkovsky. Students (including R. David Okunov and R. Avraham Yehoshua Koratin) studied in synagogue women’s galleries. In Tevet/Shevat 5690 (1929–1930) the police raided, sealed the synagogue and the students fled at night. Local support came in part from the town shochet R. Avraham Abba Regulim, who was later arrested and died in prison. After the main branch closed, a small cheder for younger boys continued under Regulim’s care for a time.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Menachem Mendel Futerfas]] | [[Nachum Labkovsky]] | [[David Okunov]] | [[Avraham Yehoshua Koratin]] | [[Avraham Abba Regulim]] | [[Dovber Gorfinkel]]

== Chapter 89: The Yeshiva in Zvil (Novograd-Volynsk) (5688 (1927–1928)–5689 (1928–1929)) ==
In winter 5688 (1927–1928) R. Chaim Shaul Brook, with the Rebbe Rayatz’s approval, went to Zvil (Novograd-Volynsk) to open a yeshiva. It began with nine students and grew to eighteen (plus a separate cheder of twelve). Studies took place in a large synagogue; Brook taught while wearing tallit and tefillin to appear as a private worshipper. Repeated visits by Yevsektsiya officials led to protocols, a trial, and Brook’s eventual sentence of nine months’ forced labor followed by five years’ exile to his hometown of Ilyino. The students were forced to move several times (including to an attic and the chazzan’s house) before the branch closed in summer 5689 (1928–1929). Brook later described the constant fear, night-time interrogations and the physical hardship of the period in his memoirs.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Chaim Shaul Brook]] | [[Aharon Chazan]] | [[Yaakov Maskalik]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>I received a letter from my friend R. Mordechai Eliezer… asking me to travel to Zvil… to serve as ram and mashpia… I wrote to the Rebbe Rayatz… He answered that it was very worthwhile to go there.
— R. Chaim Shaul Brook’s memoirs <ref name="Levin1989p302">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 302 (quoting R. Chaim Shaul Brook’s memoirs).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 90: The Yeshiva in Homel, Kherson and Odessa (5689 (1928–1929)–5690 (1929–1930)) ==
After the closure of Polotsk in late winter 5689 (1928–1929), one group of students (including R. Israel Shimon Kalmanson) went to Kherson and later to Odessa, while another group under R. Yechezkel Himelstein went first to Homel and then to Kherson. In Odessa the students studied throughout 5690 (1929–1930) under occasional supervision by R. Menachem Mendel Futerfas and R. Yaakov Gurkov. A minor incident at a mixed bathing beach (students deliberately avoiding the mixed section) led to their detention by the NKVD and forced them to leave the city. The Homel group was also expelled after a short time. Students then transferred to Vitebsk, which was then the central yeshiva.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yechezkel Himelstein]] | [[Israel Shimon Kalmanson]] | [[Menachem Mendel Futerfas]] | [[Yaakov Gurkov]] | [[Nachum Volasov]] | [[Tzemach Gurevitz]]

== Chapter 91: General Summary of the Tomchei Temimim Network (until 5691 (1930–1931)) ==
Contemporary letters and a 5689 (1928–1929) budget report by the Rebbe’s committee describe the network at its height. In 5686 (1925–1926)–5687 (1926–1927) branches operated in Kharkov, Kremenchug, Romny, Nevel, Polotsk, Astashkov and elsewhere, with total enrollment reaching several hundred. By summer 5688 (1927–1928) Nevel alone had several hundred students plus a rabbinical seminary; Kharkov, Kiev, Vitebsk and Polotsk were also major centers. A 5689 (1928–1929) budget listed 620 students across roughly a dozen locations (including 150 in Minsk, 100 in Vitebsk, 75 in Nevel, 60 in Polotsk, 45 in Kharkov, etc.), plus plans for additional groups in Georgia, Samarkand and Volhynia. Non-Chabad yeshivas (Novardok, Minsk under R. Yehoshua of Hordna, etc.) had already been closed or had fled by the late 5680s, leaving Chabad branches as the last organized network. Students lived on 20–25 rubles per month and faced constant Yevsektsiya pressure.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Eliyahu Chaim Althaus]] | [[Saadia Liberov]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Now Tomchei Temimim is in five principal large places besides smaller places, and the number of students is about three hundred.
— R. Elchanan Dov Marozov, 5687 (1926–1927) <ref name="Levin1989p307">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 307 (quoting R. Elchanan Dov Marozov, 5687 (1926–1927)).</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>What you ask—how one studies Torah in Russia—yes, I have seen holiness. Would that they studied so in other countries where one is permitted to study, only that one would not need the Russian mesirut nefesh. And that is the Nevel yeshiva which was the center.
— the Rebbe Rayatz at Dvinsk station, Adar 5688 (1927–1928) <ref name="Levin1989p307b">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 307 (quoting the Rebbe Rayatz at Dvinsk station, Adar 5688 (1927–1928)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 92: The Yeshiva in Kutaisi and Other Georgian Towns (5691 (1930–1931)–5693 (1932–1933)) ==
After the final closure of the Vitebsk central yeshiva in late winter 5691 (1930–1931), the main body of students was directed to the Caucasus. Groups first tried Baku, then settled in Kutaisi (and briefly Sachkhere and other Georgian towns). R. Shmuel Levitin (later succeeded by R. Avraham Levi Slavin) and local Georgian shochetim and rabbanim assisted. R. Zalman Levitin (“Haretscher”) arrived as mashpia and raised the level of Chassidus study. Conditions were severe—famine, difficulty obtaining food, constant fear of arrest. In the winter of 5692 (1931–1932)–93 the branch was raided; R. Zalman Levitin and many students were arrested. Remaining students fled back into Russia proper. Contemporary memoirs (R. Michael Rapoport and others) describe the train journey, interrogations, and life in Kutaisi under extreme poverty.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shmuel Levitin]] | [[Zalman Levitin]] | [[Avraham Levi Slavin]] | [[Avraham Dreizin]] | [[Michael Rapoport]] | [[Michael Lipsker]] | [[Menachem Mendel Futerfas]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>In the month of Tammuz we received instructions to travel to Baku in Azerbaijan, where we could study Torah in peace… We all moved to Kutaisi and studied there for several years. The situation in the country was very bad, for there was great famine…
— R. Michael Rapoport <ref name="Levin1989p310">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 310 (quoting R. Michael Rapoport).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 93: The Arrested and the Remnant Yeshivas (5693 (1932–1933)) ==
A detailed letter of 2 Iyar 5693 (1932–1933) from one of the yeshiva administrators to the Rebbe Rayatz lists the scattered remnants after the Georgian arrests and the failed Batum border-crossing attempt (23 Chabad men arrested, including nine students). Groups of 4–10 older students continued in Kiev, Kursk, Novozybkov, Staraya Russa, Nevel, Poltava and elsewhere. Many others had returned to their hometowns. The letter also records those still in Batum prison and notes the extreme difficulty of supporting even this small number. These remnant branches form the subject of the following chapters.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Eliezer Pinsky]] | [[Benzion Katzenelson]] | [[Nachum Volasov]] | [[Avraham Yehoshua Koratin]] | [[Zalman Levitin]]

== Chapter 94: The Yeshiva in Kiev (5689 (1928–1929)–5694 (1933–1934)) ==
A branch was established in Kiev in winter 5689 (1928–1929) after the Nevel closure (one of the classes transferred there). It continued until the beginning of winter 5694 (1933–1934). R. Binyamin Lipman of Minsk served as mashpia. Students (including R. Eliezer Pinsky, R. Nachum Volasov, R. Michael Kuznetsov, R. Moshe Yatsmenik and others) studied in synagogues under severe poverty; occasional packages of money arrived from the Rebbe in Poland. In Tishrei 5694 (1933–1934) the authorities raided the women’s gallery; most students escaped through a window while one local man was briefly arrested. The synagogue was sealed and the branch closed. A smaller group of about ten continued in a workshop-like setting for a short time. Memoirs describe both the material hardship and the farbrengens on 12 Tammuz.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Binyamin Lipman]] | [[Eliezer Pinsky]] | [[Nachum Volasov]] | [[Michael Kuznetsov]] | [[Moshe Yatsmenik]] | [[Yaakov Schatz]] | [[Aryeh Leib Kaplan]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Now I have to speak with you about the workers who are here. We are ten brothers doing our work according to the order established of old… The spirit of the storm all around prevents them from advancing further.
— R. Binyamin Lipman, Iyar 5693 (1932–1933) <ref name="Levin1989p315">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 315 (quoting R. Binyamin Lipman, Iyar 5693 (1932–1933)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 95: The Yeshiva in Chernigov (5694 (1933–1934)–5695 (1934–1935)) ==
After the Kiev raid of Tishrei 5694 (1933–1934) a small group (including the author’s father and R. Moshe Yatsmenik) moved to Chernigov. R. Yehuda Leib Don-Yechia, the local rav, taught them. The group studied through 5694 (1933–1934)–95; some later moved on to Moscow/Malakhovka or Berdichev. Contemporary letters show the students writing to the Rebbe about the possibility of obtaining exit papers for Riga.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yehuda Leib Don-Yechia]] | [[Moshe Yatsmenik]] | [[Yaakov Ganzburg]] | [[Avraham Kinman]]

== Chapter 96: The Yeshiva in Malakhovka (5694 (1933–1934)–5695 (1934–1935)) ==
Malakhovka (near Moscow) had a sizable Chabad community. From the middle of winter 5694 (1933–1934) a group of students gathered there to study with R. Shlomo Chaim Kesselman (exiled from Polotsk), R. Rafael Cohen and others. Because residence within 100 km of Moscow required special permits, the students lived under constant threat of arrest; several were detained at night, forced to sign undertakings to leave, and then returned to study. Peak numbers reached about six regular students plus visitors. The branch continued into 5695 (1934–1935). Many later listed Malakhovka/Moscow among their places of study.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Rafael Cohen]] | [[Avraham Kinman]] | [[Meir Zarhi]] | [[Shlomo Matosov]] | [[Avraham Yehoshua Koratin]] | [[Michael Teitelbaum]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>I am now in a city where there are workers engaged in His craft… In this city [Moscow area] there are both things [Anash and study partners].
— R. Avraham Kinman, summer 5694 (1933–1934) <ref name="Levin1989p318">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 318 (quoting R. Avraham Kinman, summer 5694 (1933–1934)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 97: The Yeshiva in Novozybkov (5691 (1930–1931)–5694 (1933–1934)) ==
Small groups studied in Novozybkov at different times between summer 5691 (1930–1931) and summer 5694 (1933–1934). One group of four (including R. Moshe Robinson/Karalovitcher, R. Dovber Gurevitz and R. Yitzchak Shetatin) studied under the local rav R. Shlomo Yosef Zain for nearly a year until Lag ba-Omer 5694 (1933–1934), then moved to Karalovitch. Earlier, R. David Okunov had spent about a year and a half there after the Yekaterinoslav closure. Support for matzos and basic needs is recorded in local letters.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shlomo Yosef Zain]] | [[David Okunov]] | [[Moshe Robinson]] | [[Yosef Goldberg]] | [[Yitzchak Shetatin]]

== Chapter 98: The Yeshiva in Kursk (5693 (1932–1933)–5700 (1939–1940)) ==
One of the longer-lived branches, active from at least spring 5693 (1932–1933) until summer 5700 (1939–1940). Early students included R. Bentzion Katzenelson, R. Shaul Steinback, and the Wilenkin brothers (Yosef and Shalom). Later, R. Michael Rapoport served as maggid shiur for younger boys (ages 6–16); after his departure R. Shimon Shtilerman and then R. Henich Rapoport continued. Studies took place in synagogues and private homes; frequent moves were required once locations became known. In Iyar 5700 (1939–1940) the NKVD raided; R. Henich Rapoport and several students were arrested. R. Yehoshua Raskin (Katznelson) described months of solitary confinement, repeated interrogations, and a sentence of five to ten years in a labor camp. Local support came from R. Mendel Sheinman and others. Peak numbers were small (often 6–8 regular students).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Bentzion Katzenelson]] | [[Shaul Steinback]] | [[Yosef Wilenkin]] | [[Shalom Wilenkin]] | [[Michael Rapoport]] | [[Shimon Shtilerman]] | [[Henich Rapoport]] | [[Yehoshua Raskin]] | [[Mendel Sheinman]] | [[Mordechai Levin]] | [[Shalom Ber Friedman]] | [[Yeshaya Gopin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Levin]] | [[Hershel Slonim]] | [[Rafael Wilshansky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Kindelach, you don’t need to be impressed by anyone! You can tell them the whole truth about me… They can arrest me and exile me to Siberia, but you must continue to learn!
— R. Mendel Sheinman upon his arrest in Kursk, 5700 (1939–1940) <ref name="Levin1989p326">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 326 (quoting R. Mendel Sheinman upon his arrest in Kursk, 5700 (1939–1940)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 99: The Yeshiva in Zhitomir (5694 (1933–1934)–5697 (1936–1937)) ==
Opened in winter 5694 (1933–1934) after the Kiev closure; continued until late summer 5697 (1936–1937). Initial students: R. Eliezer Pinsky, R. Nachum Volosov, R. Avraham Zelig Ganburg, later joined by R. Yaakov Shatz, R. Michel Konitzov and others. Local help came from R. Mordechai Eliezer Lapatovsky (hy"d). Studies occurred in synagogues (including the “Tikin Kleizl” and the Maggid’s kloyz). After Pinsky’s marriage, R. Michael Teitelbaum served as mashgiach. A police visit in 5696 (1935–1936) forced a temporary flight; the branch closed after a night raid in Elul 5697 (1936–1937) and students fled to Voronezh.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Eliezer Pinsky]] | [[Nachum Volosov]] | [[Avraham Zelig Ganburg]] | [[Yaakov Shatz]] | [[Michel Konitzov]] | [[Mordechai Eliezer Lapatovsky]] | [[Michael Teitelbaum]] | [[Moshe Aharon Geisinsky]] | [[Moshe Binyamin Kaplan]] | [[Hillel Pevzner]] | [[Shneur Zalman Katzenelenbogen]] | [[Shimon Charitonov]]

== Chapter 100: The Yeshiva in Berdichev (5695 (1934–1935)–5698 (1937–1938)) ==
Founded in winter 5695 (1934–1935) by R. Yaakov Shatz; continued (with interruptions) until 24 Tevet 5698 (1937–1938). Early students included the Geisinsky cousins and others; later groups numbered up to 12–13. Maggidei shiur included R. Yaakov Shatz, R. Avraham Zelig Ganburg and R. Moshe Robinson (Karalovitcher). On 24 Tevet 5698 (1937–1938) the NKVD arrested Robinson together with the students. After about a month the younger boys were sent to a children’s home; R. Michael Teitelbaum later rescued several of them. Robinson was exiled. Contemporary Soviet press noted the existence of the “illegal” group.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yaakov Shatz]] | [[Avraham Zelig Ganburg]] | [[Moshe Robinson]] | [[Moshe Aharon Geisinsky]] | [[Hillel Pevzner]] | [[Dovber Kibman]] | [[Heshel Zeitlin]] | [[Yechezkel Brod]] | [[Rafael Wilshansky]] | [[Wolf Auerbach]] | [[Shaul Brook]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The studies were at five in the morning. One of the students would lock the shutters from outside and leave. We studied in different synagogues and only gathered for the shiur.
— R. Heshel Zeitlin on the Berdichev branch <ref name="Levin1989p333">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 333 (quoting R. Heshel Zeitlin on the Berdichev branch).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 101: The Yeshiva in Poltava (5696 (1935–1936)) ==
A short-lived branch active mainly in 5696 (with a small precursor in summer 5695 (1934–1935)). Students included R. Moshe Binyamin Kaplan, R. Moshe Yashmenik and R. Nachum Volosov (who initially served as mashgiach). Later mashgichim were R. Moshe Yashmenik and then R. Meir Zarhi (Kaplan). Local connection was through R. Dovber Greenferim, the rav of Poltava, and R. Shmuel Dabrovskin. The group studied through the winter and following summer before dispersing.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Moshe Binyamin Kaplan]] | [[Nachum Volosov]] | [[Meir Zarhi]] | [[Moshe Yashmenik]] | [[Dovber Greenferim]] | [[Shmuel Dabrovskin]]

== Chapter 102: The Yeshiva in Haditch (5696 (1935–1936)) ==
A small winter 5696 (1935–1936) branch. Students included R. Moni Rapoport, R. Mordechai Trigubov and others under R. Avraham Zelig Ganburg (with a brief period under R. Yosef Goldberg). R. Dovber Kibman later recalled studying there before returning to Berdichev. The group was short-lived and students moved on after Pesach.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Avraham Zelig Ganburg]] | [[Moni Rapoport]] | [[Mordechai Trigubov]] | [[Yosef Goldberg]] | [[Dovber Kibman]]

== Chapter 103: The Yeshiva in Voronezh (5695 (1934–1935)–5698 (1937–1938)) ==
Opened in summer 5695 (1934–1935) for older bachurim and continued until late summer 5698 (1937–1938). Early participants included R. Michael Teitelbaum, R. Shaul Froifusker, R. Shalom Wilenkin and R. Yisrael Levin; the local chassid R. Betzalel Wilshansky frequently farbrenged with them. After the Zhitomir closure a larger group arrived. Studies took place in the synagogue. Threats of the “known informer” forced temporary dispersals to nearby villages (Sasnovka, Grapskaya). R. Michael Teitelbaum served as mashgiach until his marriage.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Betzalel Wilshansky]] | [[Michael Teitelbaum]] | [[Shalom Wilenkin]] | [[Yisrael Levin]] | [[Moshe Aharon Geisinsky]] | [[Moshe Binyamin Kaplan]] | [[Hillel Pevzner]] | [[Berl Kievman]] | [[Yeshaya Gopin]] | [[Rafael Wilshansky]] | [[Henich Rapoport]] | [[Nissan Pinson]]

== Chapter 104: The Yeshiva in Karalovitch (5694 (1933–1934)–5697 (1936–1937)) ==
A branch for older students active from early summer 5694 (1933–1934) until late winter 5697 (1936–1937). Participants included R. Yosef Goldberg, R. Moshe Robinson, R. Yeshaya Gopin, R. Nissan Pinson, R. Dovber Gurevitz and R. Shimon Charitonov. Some had previously studied in Novozybkov. The group dispersed in the course of 5697 (1936–1937), with members moving to other branches.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Goldberg]] | [[Moshe Robinson]] | [[Yeshaya Gopin]] | [[Nissan Pinson]] | [[Dovber Gurevitz]] | [[Shimon Charitonov]]

== Chapter 105: Support of the Rebbe for the Yeshivas ==
Throughout the underground period the Rebbe Rayatz provided financial support from the central Tomchei Temimim funds (covering both Polish and Russian branches). Letters document requests for addresses of students so that aid could be sent, and monthly budget allocations (one surviving fragment lists ~1,000 rubles per month as the Rebbe’s share for the Russian “Tomchei Temimim” groups of five students studying in various batei midrash). Local Anash also contributed beyond their means. The Rebbe’s letters repeatedly emphasize the mesirus nefesh of the students and the extreme physical hardship (hunger, exile, constant flight).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Avraham Dreizin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]] | [[Chaim Lieberman]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>They are, thank G-d, studying Torah with actual mesirus nefesh… hungry, barefoot, weak, tortured and persecuted… May G-d have mercy on them and redeem them soon with a complete redemption.
<ref name="Levin1989p341">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 341 (from letters of the Rebbe Rayatz, 5689 (1928–1929)–5691 (1930–1931)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 106: The New Director – R. Yona Cohen of Poltava ==
After R. Avraham Dreizin was forced into hiding by intensified arrests in summer 5695 (1934–1935), central direction of the scattered branches gradually passed to R. Yona Cohen (Poltaver), who lived in the Moscow area. In summer 5696 (1935–1936) the Rebbe formally entrusted him with overall responsibility. Working with R. Mordechai Eliezer Lapatovsky (Zhitomir) and others, he coordinated the assignment of older bachurim as maggidei shiur, the founding of new branches, and the distribution of support funds (often carried by trusted women). Meetings of senior students were held in Moscow (including at the home of R. Moshe Katzman) to plan the continuation of the yeshivas under conditions of extreme danger.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yona Cohen]] | [[Mordechai Eliezer Lapatovsky]] | [[Nachum Volosov]] | [[Avraham Dreizin]] | [[Shaul Brook]] | [[Moshe Robinson]] | [[Yosef Goldberg]] | [[Yisrael Levin]] | [[Michael Rapoport]] | [[Shimon Shtilerman]]

== Chapter 107: The Yeshiva in Krivoi Rog (5696 (1935–1936)–5698 (1937–1938)) ==
A group moved from Berdichev in summer 5696 (1935–1936) and studied until late Tishrei 5697 (1936–1937). A second branch opened after Pesach 5697 (1936–1937) under R. Yisrael Yehuda Levin and continued into mid-winter 5698 (1937–1938). Students included R. Moshe Binyamin Kaplan, R. Moshe Aharon Geisinsky, R. Aharon Elazar Mogilevsky, R. Leib Motzkin, R. Yoel Dubman, R. Yehoshua Katznelson and others. Studies took place in the synagogue women’s gallery and, at times, in a chicken coop. A daytime raid forced flight; Levin delayed his own escape until the boys were safe. The branch was closed and reopened more than once before final dispersal.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yisrael Yehuda Levin]] | [[Yosef Goldberg]] | [[Moshe Binyamin Kaplan]] | [[Moshe Aharon Geisinsky]] | [[Yehoshua Katznelson]] | [[Yechezkel Brod]] | [[Leib Motzkin]] | [[Yoel Dubman]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Only one person did not move. It was R. Yisrael himself, who stood and waited until we had all fled… only then did he flee as well. It was true mesirus nefesh.
— R. Yehoshua Katznelson on the Krivoi Rog raid <ref name="Levin1989p346">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 346 (quoting R. Yehoshua Katznelson on the Krivoi Rog raid).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 108: The Yeshiva in Klinzy (5697 (1936–1937)) ==
Opened after Pesach 5697 (1936–1937) by R. Yosef Goldberg and continued until 24 Kislev 5698 (1937–1938). Students included R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon, R. Henich Rapoport, R. Shalom Ber Friedman, R. Tzvi Hirsch Braslav and others. On the night of the attempted arrest Goldberg was absent and the group escaped. He later opened short-lived branches in other towns (including Kubishov).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Goldberg]] | [[Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon]] | [[Henich Rapoport]] | [[Shalom Ber Friedman]] | [[Yechezkel Brod]]

== Chapter 109: Remnants of the Yeshivas in Russia (5697 (1936–1937)–5701 (1940–1941)) ==
By 5697 (1936–1937)–5700 (1939–1940) most organized branches had been closed by arrests and exile. Small groups of three to six students continued in scattered locations (including Yegoryevsk near Moscow under R. Yisrael Neveler, and temporary groups in Kharkov and elsewhere). Students and mashgichim moved constantly; many older bachurim were themselves arrested. The pattern persisted until the outbreak of war, when large numbers of Anash fled eastward to Samarkand and Tashkent.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yisrael Neveler]] | [[Reuven Kaminetzky]] | [[Mordechai Levin]] | [[Dovber Levin]] | [[Moshe Zalman Kaminetzky]] | [[Michael Teitelbaum]]

== Chapter 110: The Yeshiva in Kutaisi and Georgian Cities (5698 (1937–1938)–5706 (1945–1946)) ==
Founded around Pesach 5698 (1937–1938) in Kutaisi (Georgia) and continued until late 5705 (1944–1945). Early students included R. Yechezkel Brod, R. Leib Henich Menkin, R. Yeshaya Gopin, R. Menachem Mendel Raskin and R. Dovber Kibman. R. Yosef Goldberg directed the main branch and several smaller ones in nearby towns (Kulashi, Senaki, Sukhumi, Batumi, etc.) until his marriage; R. Moshe Marozov later took over. Additional mashgichim included R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon and R. Yaakov Notik. Students studied in private homes and synagogues; occasional arrests occurred but the relative remoteness of Georgia allowed greater continuity. After the war most remaining students transferred to the central yeshiva in Samarkand. In summer 5706 (1945–1946) a short-lived group was again sent from Samarkand to Kutaisi before the mass emigration via Poland.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yechezkel Brod]] | [[Yosef Goldberg]] | [[Moshe Marozov]] | [[Yeshaya Gopin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Raskin]] | [[Dovber Kibman]] | [[Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon]] | [[Yaakov Notik]] | [[Leib Motzkin]] | [[Shalom Levertov]] | [[Azriel Chaikin]] | [[Chaim Yisrael Sperlin]]

== Chapter 111: The Yeshiva in Melitopol (5698 (1937–1938)–5701 (1940–1941)) ==
A small branch of 5–6 students operated in Melitopol (Crimea) from 5698 (1937–1938) until early summer 5701 (1940–1941). R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon served as mashgiach from 5698 (1937–1938) until winter 5700 (then moved to Kutaisi); R. Shalom Marozov arrived at the beginning of summer. Other students included R. Shneur Zalman Katzenelenbogen, R. Shneur Zalman Levin, R. Heshel Zeitlin and the brothers Ephraim Mordechai and Menachem Mendel Paley. At the start of summer 5701 (1940–1941) the older students were summoned for interrogation; fearing arrest they fled to Kutaisi and thereby escaped the German occupation of Melitopol later that summer, during which the remaining Jews were murdered.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shalom Mendel Kalmanzon]] | [[Shalom Marozov]] | [[Shneur Zalman Katzenelenbogen]] | [[Shneur Zalman Levin]] | [[Heshel Zeitlin]] | [[Ephraim Mordechai Paley]] | [[Menachem Mendel Paley]]

== Chapter 112: The Yeshiva in Samarkand and Tashkent (5702 (1941–1942)–5706 (1945–1946)) ==
With the German invasion large numbers of Anash fled eastward to Central Asia, primarily Samarkand and Tashkent. An early study group formed around R. Eliyahu Chaim Roitblatt but collapsed under the great famine and typhus of 5702 (1941–1942). In early 5703 (1942–1943) the yeshiva was reorganized. R. Michael Teitelbaum began with a few students (including R. Shalom Levertov and the orphaned sons of R. Moshe Katzman and R. Mendel Dubrovsky). R. Menachem Mendel Futerfas assumed practical responsibility under the overall direction of R. Yona Cohen (then in Tashkent). Numbers grew rapidly; by 5704 (1943–1944) R. Nissan Nemanov was brought from Tashkent as the principal mashpia. At its peak the Samarkand yeshiva had roughly forty older students in the main hall and about one hundred younger boys (fifty studying Gemara), with a parallel branch of about sixty in Tashkent and continued activity in Kutaisi. After the war, as Anash began leaving on Polish papers, the yeshiva continued until mid-summer 5706 (1945–1946). R. Yona Cohen arranged for orphaned students to be registered with other Anash families so they could emigrate; he himself was arrested in Lvov before he could leave and disappeared.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Michael Teitelbaum]] | [[Menachem Mendel Futerfas]] | [[Yona Cohen]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Eliyahu Chaim Roitblatt]] | [[Shalom Levertov]] | [[Yehoshua Dubrovsky]] | [[Zelig Katzman]] | [[Hillel Katzman]] | [[Moshe Robinson]] | [[Zalman Shimon Dvorkin]] | [[Avraham Eliyahu Plotkin]] | [[Mendel Dubrovsky]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Yisrael Noach Bilnitzky]] | [[Yehoshua Karp]] | [[Hirsch Lieberman]] | [[Chaim Meir Garelik]] | [[Nachum Volosov]] | [[Hillel Azimov]] | [[Shmuel Notik]] | [[Meir Gurkov]] | [[Abba Pliskin]] | [[Aharon Yosef Bilnitzky]] | [[Shlomo Matosov]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Michael said to me: We must make a Tomchei Temimim yeshiva here. … We will take the two boys Shalom Kovliaker and Zelig Katzman and make a Tomchei Temimim, and arrange “meals” for them, and he will learn with them.
<ref name="Levin1989p352">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 352 (memoir of the author’s father on the re-founding of the Samarkand yeshiva, early 5703 (1942–1943)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 113: The Emigration of Anash from Russia ==
After completing the account of the underground Tomchei Temimim network (chapters נא–צח), the book turns to the final major theme: the emigration of Anash from Russia. During the mass Jewish emigration from the Russian Empire (from 1880 onward) relatively few Chabad chassidim participated; the Rebbeim were not enthusiastic about departure to the “land of freedom.” Even after the Revolution and the intensification of religious persecution, as long as the Rebbe Rayatz remained in Russia the majority of Anash and the Temimim stayed and continued the struggle. Individual instructions to leave were given in specific cases (e.g., R. Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod in 5682 (1921–1922)/5684 (1923–1924)), but the general stance was to remain. After the Rebbe’s own departure (Kislev 5688 (1927–1928)) the situation deteriorated further and emigration efforts increased.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Nachum Shimarya Shashonkin]] | [[Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Yaakov Yisrael Zuber]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>The fearers of G-d and the observers of Torah and mitzvos must stand firm as a camp… We are not permitted… to look with the glance of flight and escape from the place of the campaign; on the contrary, we must strengthen our stand…
<ref name="Levin1989p356">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 356 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 20 Menachem Av 5685 (1924–1925), responding to a request to leave for the Land of Israel).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 114: Instructions of the Rebbe to Endeavor to Leave Russia ==
The first known individual instruction from the Rebbe Rayatz to emigrate to the United States was given to R. Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod (winter 5684 (1923–1924), after earlier preparation). A broader stirring among Anash began around Rosh Hashanah 5685 (1924–1925), when a group of Temimim in Leningrad resolved to promote departure and to send individuals abroad who would then help others. R. Yisrael Jacobson was among those who eventually left for the US and worked on behalf of those remaining. After the Rebbe’s release from Kostroma exile and his decision to leave for Riga, he instructed R. Yaakov Yisrael Zuber (Rosh Chodesh Elul 5687 (1926–1927)) to seek a visa for America for rabbinic work. Private instructions continued; the general attitude while the Rebbe was still in Russia had been to remain and strengthen Jewish life there.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Yaakov Yisrael Zuber]] | [[Aharon Shlomo Axelrod]] | [[Elchanan Dov Marozov]] | [[Avraham Paris]] | [[Yisrael of Girsad]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>My opinion and desire is that you travel to America for rabbinate… I want you to travel there and inform them of all this in my name…
<ref name="Levin1989p358">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 358 (letter of R. Yaakov Yisrael Zuber transmitting the Rebbe’s instruction, 1 Tavo 5687 (1926–1927)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 115: The Mission of R. Mordechai Dubin to Russia ==
Approximately two years after the Rebbe’s arrival in Riga he sent R. Mordechai Dubin (a member of the Latvian Sejm with political influence) to Russia to explore possibilities of extracting Anash. Dubin visited Leningrad and Moscow. He reported that former contacts in the Soviet apparatus had been replaced or were unwilling to help, that exit permits were sometimes sold for high sums, and that wealthy non-observant Jews were uninterested in funding the departure of religious Jews. The visit produced limited practical results but intensified the Rebbe’s private and general instructions that Anash should try to leave. The Rebbe also wrote repeatedly to American Chabad contacts requesting affidavits and rabbinic positions for individuals still in Russia (including R. Yehuda Butrashvili / Kolater and others).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Mordechai Dubin]] | [[Yitzchak Raskin]] | [[Nachum Shimarya Shashonkin]] | [[Yehuda Butrashvili]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Rafael Nachman Cohen]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>From the day our Rebbe arrived in Riga he has been pressing me to travel to Russia in order to get you out… The chances are small…
<ref name="Levin1989p360">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 360 (account of R. Nachum Shimarya Shashonkin on Dubin’s visit).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 116: Rescue Campaign by Anash in the United States ==
Anash already outside Russia, led especially by R. Yisrael Jacobson (who had arrived in 5686 (1925–1926)), organized systematic efforts. In 5689 (1928–1929) a detailed questionnaire (nine points covering name, occupation, means of support, preferred destination, etc.) was prepared and distributed; at least 150 completed forms reached Jacobson and were forwarded to the Rebbe. In summer 5690 (1929–1930) a special meeting of the Agudas HaTemimim in New York discussed concrete steps to save Anash still in Russia. Circular letters continued into 5693 (1932–1933) emphasizing the “pidyon shevuyim” obligation. Results remained limited because of American immigration quotas and Soviet exit restrictions.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Agudas HaTemimim]] | [[Shaul Dovber Zislin]] | [[Moshe Axelrod]] | [[Avraham Shlomo Patchin]] | [[Shimon Bliner]] | [[Yaakov Yisrael Zuber]] | [[Yehuda Eber]] | [[Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin]] | [[Elchanan Dovber Marozov]] | [[Eli Nachum Shklai]] | [[Shalom Posner]]

== Chapter 117: Difficulties in Obtaining a Visa, Travel Ticket and Passport ==
Even after external affidavits or rabbinic positions were secured, three nearly insurmountable obstacles remained: (1) a foreign entry visa, (2) paid steamship tickets for the entire family, and (3) a Soviet exit passport whose cost often exceeded $100–300 per adult (payable only in foreign currency after 5692 (1931–1932)). The United States imposed tight quotas after 5684 (1923–1924) and made rabbinic visas extremely difficult to obtain. Latvia granted temporary refuge more readily until 5694 (1933–1934); Poland and most other countries were closed. Palestine was the most accessible destination for those who could reach it. After obtaining the three documents the applicant still faced repeated refusals at Soviet exit offices; many spent years in Moscow or nearby towns (e.g., Yegoryevsk) merely to be eligible to file. The combination of economic crisis in the West and famine plus foreign-currency requirements inside the USSR brought emigration almost to a halt in 5692 (1931–1932)–5693 (1932–1933).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Shaul Dovber Zislin]] | [[Avraham Eliyahu Axelrod]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Shmuel Zalmanov]] | [[Rafael Nachman Cohen]] | [[Yosef Rosen]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>According to many cases I have seen, the difficulty of travel is great… After the documents and permits have been sent from there, it still remains in great doubt, dependent on the will, desire and judgment of the consul here who is very strict…
<ref name="Levin1989p365">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 365 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 18 Sivan 5689 (1928–1929)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 118: The Rebbe’s Efforts on Behalf of Emigration ==
From his arrival in Riga (5688 (1927–1928)) onward the Rebbe Rayatz continuously urged Anash to seek exit permits. In the relatively quieter year 5694 (1933–1934) he intensified private instructions: “submit in p’shutim” (ordinary Soviet currency rather than dollars), prefer the Land of Israel as destination, and re-apply after refusals. Surviving letter-books from Adar–Iyar 5694 (1933–1934) contain dozens of such directives. He also sought collective certificates and funding from the Joint and other bodies for groups of working-age Anash, and corresponded with R. Shneur Zalman Schneersohn (his representative in Russia) and R. Shlomo Yosef Zevin about practical lists and certificates. Approximately one hundred Anash families managed to leave in 5695 (1934–1935)–5696 (1935–1936), most for Palestine; thereafter borders tightened again until the end of the war.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shlomo Yosef Zevin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]] | [[Mordechai Dubin]] | [[Yosef Rosen]] | [[Yehuda Eber]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Binyamin Garodetzky]] | [[Aharon Tomarkin]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Everyone knows [my view regarding] travel to the Holy Land… but concerning our brothers who are suffering there is no other counsel, for to the other countries besides Latvia they do not give entry permission, and in Latvia there is nothing to do…
<ref name="Levin1989p374">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 374 (letter of the Rebbe Rayatz, 3 Iyar 5694 (1933–1934)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 119: R. Yaakov Yisrael Zuber ==
Following the Rebbe’s instruction (Elul 5687 (1926–1927)) R. Yisrael Jacobson obtained a rabbinic contract for Zuber from a synagogue on Coney Island. Because the United States had no diplomatic relations with the USSR, the documents had to be notarized in Russia and sent to the American consulate in Riga. Zuber reached Riga in early winter 5689 (1928–1929) but never received the American visa; after years of fruitless efforts he settled in Stockholm as a shoichet and rav and only reached the United States after the Second World War.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yaakov Yisrael Zuber]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]]

== Chapter 120: R. Yitzchak (Ha-Matmid) Horowitz ==
Efforts to bring R. Yitzchak Ha-Matmid (Horowitz) and R. Yaakov Maskalik (Voravtzer) out of Russia began immediately after Zuber’s arrival in Riga. Ha-Matmid eventually received an exit permit and reached Riga in early winter 5693 (1932–1933) after more than two years of attempts; his arrival was greeted with joy among Anash still inside Russia. Maskalik remained; he was arrested in late summer 5695 (1934–1935), exiled, and disappeared.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yitzchak Horowitz (Ha-Matmid)]] | [[Yaakov Maskalik]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Moshe Axelrod]] | [[Shamai Vigan]] | [[Shmuel Horowitz]]

== Chapter 121: R. Moshe Axelrod ==
R. Moshe Axelrod’s case illustrates the multi-year ordeal typical of those who eventually left. From 5690 (1929–1930) onward he received a synagogue contract and funds from relatives and from R. Yisrael Jacobson, yet faced repeated refusals, changing ticket requirements (Franz Line certificates became invalid), short-term arrest, eviction from his home, and the need to register in Leningrad or Moscow merely to file. After seven years of alternating hope and despair he succeeded in reaching the Land of Israel in summer 5696 (1935–1936).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Moshe Axelrod]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]] | [[Aharon Tomarkin]]

== Chapter 122: R. Yisrael Leib Lipschitz ==
Shortly after R. Moshe Axelrod’s departure, R. Yisrael Leib Lipschitz also reached the Land of Israel, but only after years of near-despair. The Rebbe personally arranged a single ticket; family tickets and the required foreign-currency passport fee remained obstacles. He registered near Moscow to file, appealed to Kalinin, and finally received his passport in winter 5697 (1936–1937).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yisrael Leib Lipschitz]] | [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Chaim Lieberman]] | [[Hendel Nadai]]

== Chapter 123: R. Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin ==
R. Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin (brother-in-law of both R. Yisrael Jacobson and R. Yechezkel Feigin) received synagogue contracts, tickets, and dollar transfers, yet every application failed. When he tried to deposit the Joint money for the passport, the bank called the GPU; the funds were seized. He continued efforts for years without success. Arrested on the first night of Sukkot 5698 (1937–1938) for hosting a minyan and study circle in his home, he was sent to Siberia, where he died in Tishrei 5699 (1938–1939) after prolonged illness and hunger. His son-in-law R. Yaakov Shatz was also arrested and disappeared.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Yaakov Shatz]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Shaul Brok]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>On the first night of Sukkot they came and took our brother-in-law R. Aharon Eliezer into custody… the reason was that in his house they prayed in a minyan all three prayers and studied in groups…
<ref name="Levin1989p391">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 391 (letter of R. Yechezkel Feigin, 28 Tishrei 5698 (1937–1938)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 124: R. Meir Gurkov ==
The elderly R. Meir Gurkov spent years transferring assets abroad (via the Joint, R. Moshe Gurary, R. Shmuel Abba Dalitzky, and R. Yisrael Jacobson) and securing certificates and tickets for Palestine. When everything was finally ready in 5695 (1934–1935), rumors spread that exit permits had been halted and that any application would mark the applicant as an enemy of the regime. He returned the tickets (losing only the certificate fee) and remained in Russia until the postwar exodus of winter 5707 (1946–1947).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Meir Gurkov]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Moshe Gurary]] | [[Shmuel Abba Dalitzky]] | [[Hanoch Hendel Ovolin]] | [[Aharon Eliezer Zeitlin]]

== Chapter 125: R. Shamai Vigan ==
R. Shamai Vigan attempted to finance his family’s emigration by shipping Torah scrolls and other seforim from closed synagogues for sale abroad. He obtained Palestine visas in 5694 (1933–1934), but new decrees in 5695 (1934–1935) banned both the export of books and the filing of passport applications without a full year of residence registration in the capital. Arrested with other Anash in Rostov at the beginning of 5696 (1935–1936), he was sentenced to hard labor in Siberia, lost two children, and, after his release, perished in Novozybkov during the German occupation.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Shamai Vigan]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Hanoch Hendel Ovolin]] | [[Chaim Padnas]] | [[Yitzchak Horowitz (Ha-Matmid)]]

== Chapter 126: R. Elchanan Dovber Marozov ==
Former secretary of the Rebbe, R. Elchanan Dovber Marozov was arrested on Purim Katan 5687 (1926–1927), exiled for three years, and after his return settled in Leningrad under the assumed name “Dovber Pozner.” From 5689 (1928–1929) he urgently sought exit papers. Palestine visas were secured and partial funds raised, yet the full family tickets and Soviet passport were never obtained. He remained in Leningrad until mid-winter 5701 (1940–1941), when he was arrested and disappeared.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Elchanan Dovber Marozov]] | [[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Yechezkel Feigin]] | [[Yehuda Eber]] | [[Menachem Mendel Marozov]] | [[Michael Teitelbaum]] | [[Chaim Zalman Kramer]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Please have mercy on my soul and the souls of my children… How long shall I be among those who cry out and are not answered? Bring me out and rescue me from the straits, for a little more and, God forbid, I shall be lost…
<ref name="Levin1989p400">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 400 (letter of R. Elchanan Dovber Marozov, 25 Menachem Av 5694 (1933–1934)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 127: Attempts to Cross the Border Illegally (5691 (1930–1931)–5693 (1932–1933)) ==
Two major attempts involving Tomchei Temimim students are recorded. In 5691 (1930–1931)–5692 (1931–1932) a non-Jew in Kamenets-Podolsk ferried dozens of Jews (including R. David Green and later R. Avraham Kvash) into Poland for payment. Kvash was briefly imprisoned in Poland on suspicion of espionage; relatives left behind were arrested and sent to Siberia. In late winter 5693 (1932–1933) a GPU provocation near the Caucasus border offered a route to Turkey and Palestine; twenty-three Chabadniks (nine of them yeshiva students) were arrested near Batumi, imprisoned for half a year, and sentenced to hard labor. They were released in mid-winter 5694 (1933–1934) after intensive foreign intervention (including efforts timed to Litvinov’s American visit). Even afterward the desire to flee continued, though the risks had become clearer.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[David Green]] | [[Avraham Kvash]] | [[Aharon Kvash]] | [[Binyamin Lipman]] | [[Melech Kaplan]] | [[Mordechai Perlow]] | [[Yitzchak Horowitz (Ha-Matmid)]] | [[Alexander Reinin]]

== Chapter 128: Closure of the Borders in the Following Years ==
After approximately one hundred Anash families left in 5695 (1934–1935)–5696 (1935–1936), exit permits ceased almost completely. The last known departures included R. Moshe Dovber Genovburg and his family (Kalinin signed their permit on Hoshana Rabbah 5698 (1937–1938)). The years 5694 (1933–1934)–5699 (1938–1939) were among the most murderous in Soviet history; millions were arrested, exiled, or executed, and the same fate befell many Chabadniks. The path of legal emigration remained closed until after the Second World War.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Moshe Dovber Genovburg]] | [[Yitzchak Genovburg]] | [[Mikhail Kalinin]]

== Chapter 129: Departure from Russia in 5706 (1945–1946) ==
With the end of the war, Polish citizens who had fled to the USSR were allowed to return. Anash (mostly in Samarkand, Tashkent, and Kutaisi) exploited the opportunity by obtaining forged Polish papers and traveling via Lvov. The Rebbe initially advised caution (5 Tevet 5706 (1945–1946)) but later approved the route once its feasibility was confirmed. Several hundred families left during the summer and early winter of 5706 (1945–1946); the operation was highly secretive and largely self-organized by the Chabadniks themselves, with only limited contact with the broader “Briha” network. When the Soviets discovered the scheme, those still en route were arrested.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmuel Levitin]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetzky]] | [[Yehuda Leib Motzkin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Gorovitz]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Menachem Mendel Futerfas]] | [[Yonah Kahan]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>A magnificent chapter in the history of the Briha belongs to the Lubavitcher Hasidim who left Russia in the first year after liberation, conducting an independent, planned, organized, and secret flight…
<ref name="Levin1989p406">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 406 (quotation from Ephraim Dekel, ''Be-Netivei ha-Briha'').</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 130: Upon Their Arrival in Poland ==
After crossing from Lvov the first stop was Kraków, then Łódź, where many Anash temporarily settled. Pogroms against returning Jews made prolonged residence in communist-controlled Poland dangerous. The Rebbe directed them (20 Tammuz 5706 (1945–1946)) to proceed toward the American zones of Germany and Austria rather than France, so that American visas might be more attainable. R. Yisrael Jacobson was sent from New York (18 Tammuz) as the Rebbe’s special emissary to organize the rescue, visit the refugees, and coordinate with local activists. By the end of summer more than 600 Anash (approximately 200 families, of whom ~550 were from Russia) had left Poland for the West; only a few remained behind to assist later groups.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetzky]] | [[Shneur Zalman Schneersohn]] | [[Yitzchak Goldin]] | [[Shneur Zalman Serebryansky]] | [[Hadassah Garelik]] | [[Shalom Mendel Kalmanson]] | [[Eliezer Silver]]

== Chapter 131: The Prague Way-Station ==
Prague served as the principal intermediate stop between Poland and the American zones (or France). R. Jacobson spent about a month there (late Tammuz–Menachem Av 5706 (1945–1946)) organizing border crossings, food, and onward travel. A small local committee (including R. Yehuda Hitrick, R. Chaim Chaikin, and others) continued the work after his departure. Later, permanent representatives (R. Shalom Mendel Kalmanson, R. Hillel Pewzner, and Mrs. Hadassah Garelik) were stationed in Prague to maintain contact with Lvov, the camps, and the Rebbe. A short-lived “Beit Sarah” girls’ school was also founded there. Activity largely ceased after the communist takeover of Czechoslovakia in 5708 (1947–1948).

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Yisrael Jacobson]] | [[Shalom Mendel Kalmanson]] | [[Hillel Pewzner]] | [[Hadassah Garelik]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetzky]] | [[Yehuda Leib Motzkin]] | [[Menachem Mendel Futerfas]]

== Chapter 132: Refugee Camps ==
The first wave (~550 souls) reached the American zone in Germany and Austria in summer 5706 (1945–1946) and concentrated mainly in the Pocking camp near Munich (and smaller groups in Bensheim, Salzburg, etc.). There they re-established a Tomchei Temimim yeshiva under R. Nissan Nemanov; by late 5706 (1945–1946) it numbered roughly 120 students studying both Nigleh and Chassidus with renewed intensity. A later wave that left Russia in the winter of 5707 (1946–1947) settled in Austrian camps (Wegscheid, Steyr, Hallein). American visas proved far more difficult to obtain than expected (the consulates demanded proof of residence in the zones since 1945). The Rebbe therefore instructed that efforts shift toward moving the refugees to Paris for further processing.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Avraham Eliyahu Plotkin]] | [[Shalom Mendel Kalmanson]] | [[Nachum Shemaryahu Sosonkin]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Binyamin Gorodetzky]]

=== Significant quotations ===
<blockquote>Thanks to G-d our holy yeshiva has been organized here in all its details. The total number of students is 120… they study with tremendous diligence and in a short time they have grown and succeeded…
<ref name="Levin1989p422">Levin, ''Toldot Chabad be-Rusya ha-Sovietit'', 1989, p. 422 (letter of R. Avraham Eliyahu Plotkin, 13 Marcheshvan 5707 (1946–1947)).</ref></blockquote>

== Chapter 133: Settlement in France and Other Countries ==
When American visas remained blocked, the Rebbe established a “European Office for Refugee Aid” in Paris under R. Binyamin Gorodetzky (appointed 24 Marcheshvan 5707 (1946–1947)). Approximately 500 Anash were transferred from the German and Austrian camps to Paris in fifteen groups during the summer of 5707 (1946–1947). A Tomchei Temimim yeshiva was reopened in Paris; many refugees ultimately settled in France, Belgium, or continued later to the United States or the Land of Israel. The office coordinated visas, housing, and funding with the Joint and other bodies, while the Rebbe maintained daily correspondence with the activists.

=== Individuals and groups ===
[[Binyamin Gorodetzky]] | [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] | [[Shmaryahu Gurary]] | [[Nissan Nemanov]] | [[Shneur Zalman Levitin]] | [[Shlomo Chaim Kesselman]] | [[Yitzchak Goldin]]

=== Final Conclusion of the Volume ===
With the successful transfer of roughly 500 Anash refugees to Paris in 5707 (1946–1947)–5708 (1947–1948) and the re-establishment of Tomchei Temimim there, the main narrative of the book comes to a close. Many of the refugees settled permanently in France or neighboring countries; others continued to the United States, England, Australia, or the Land of Israel. In 5709 (1948–1949) a large group of 140 souls left Paris for Israel, where Kfar Chabad was founded for them. The volume notes that the story of the remnant of Chabad that remained inside the Soviet Union after 5706 (1945–1946)–5707 (1946–1947) belongs to a later period (“She’erit Tenu’at Chabad be-Rusya”) and lies outside the scope of this work.

The book ends with extensive indices (subject, institutions, and a biographical list of Tomchei Temimim students), confirming that chapter קכ is the final narrative chapter.

== Involvement of external actors ==
According to the book, aid and emigration support came through Chabad’s own networks (including Va’ad HaEzra in Paris and Poland) and personal interventions coordinated by [[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]] and his emissaries. The volume covers the period to 1950 and does not document involvement by the Mossad, Israeli government, broader Zionist movement, or Western intelligence agencies in the underground activities of this era.<ref name="Levin1989" />

== See also ==
[[Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn]]
[[Tomchei Temimim]]

== Notes ==
<references/>

[[Category:1989 books]]
[[Category:Chabad-Lubavitch]]
[[Category:Books about Hasidism]]
[[Category:Soviet Union books]]

Urban Capital Assets Ltd

2026-10-14T14:03:52Z

David: /* Directors */

[[Urban Capital Assets Ltd]] (Company number 16278486) is a private limited company.
*Company incorporated: 26 February 2025 (Active); SIC 68209 - Other letting and operating of own or leased real estate.<ref name="CHUCA">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486 URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Former name: Bellview Holdings Ltd (26 February 2025 – 13 March 2025).<ref name="CHUCA" />
*Registered office address: 16c Urban Hive, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ.<ref name="CHUCA" />
*Statement of capital on incorporation: GBP 100.<ref name="CHUCA" />

==People==
===Directors===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Correspondence address !! Role !! Date of birth !! Appointed on !! Resigned on !! Nationality !! Country of residence
|-
| [[Friedman, Jacob]] || Urban Hive, 16c, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ || Active Director || January 1975 || 26 February 2025 || - || American || United Kingdom |
|-
| [[Friedman, Raechel]] || 16c, Urban Hive, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ || Active Director || December 1974 || 22 April 2025 || - || British || England |
|}
Source: Companies House officers register.<ref name="CHUCAoff">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486/officers URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

===Persons with significant control===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Correspondence address !! Status !! Notified on !! Date of birth !! Nationality !! Country of residence !! Nature of control
|-
| [[Jacob Friedman]] || Urban Hive, 16c, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ || Active || 26 February 2025 || January 1975 || American || United Kingdom || Ownership of shares 75% or more; ownership of voting rights 75% or more; right to appoint or remove directors |
|}
Source: Companies House PSC register.<ref name="CHUCApsc">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486/persons-with-significant-control URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD persons with significant control] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

==Finances==
*No accounts filed. The company shortened its first accounting period from 28 February 2026 to 31 January 2026 (form AA01, filed 31 March 2025); the first accounts are due by 31 October 2026.<ref name="CHUCA" />

==Property==
HM Land Registry's company ownership data (October 2026) records the company as proprietor of three freehold titles, all registered on 2 June 2025.<ref name="LRCCOD">HM Land Registry, [https://use-land-property-data.service.gov.uk/datasets/ccod UK companies that own property in England and Wales] dataset, October 2026, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*120 St John Street, London EC1V 4JS (title 354647), freehold; price paid £3,500,000. HM Land Registry Price Paid Data records this as an "additional price paid" transaction dated 9 May 2025, so the figure may be an apportioned or bulk price.<ref name="PPD354647">HM Land Registry, [https://landregistry.data.gov.uk/data/ppi/transaction-record.csv?propertyAddress.postcode=EC1V%204JS Price Paid Data: EC1V 4JS] ''HM Land Registry'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Units 8 & 11, Tofts Farm Industrial Estate, Brenda Road, Hartlepool (title CE125869), freehold; price paid £2,800,000, also an "additional price paid" transaction dated 9 May 2025.<ref name="PPDCE125869">HM Land Registry, [https://landregistry.data.gov.uk/data/ppi/transaction-record.csv?propertyAddress.postcode=TS25%202DH Price Paid Data: TS25 2DH] ''HM Land Registry'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Land on the east side of Tofts Road East, Tofts Farm Industrial Estate, Hartlepool (title CE198436), freehold; no price recorded.<ref name="LRCCOD" />

==Charges==
{| class="wikitable"
! Charge !! Lender !! Created !! Delivered !! Status !! Property charged
|-
| 162784860001 || Recognise Bank Limited || 9 May 2025 || 13 May 2025 || Outstanding || 120 St John Street EC1V 4JS (title 354647); land on the east side of Tofts Road East, Hartlepool (CE198436); Units 8 & 11 Tofts Farm, Hartlepool (CE125869). Fixed and floating charge, negative pledge.
|-
| 162784860002 || Recognise Bank Limited || 9 May 2025 || 13 May 2025 || Outstanding || The same three properties. Fixed charge, negative pledge.
|-
| 162784860003 || Jemrex Capital Limited || 27 February 2026 || 2 March 2026 || Satisfied 16 June 2026 || The same three properties. Fixed and floating charge, negative pledge.
|}
Source: Companies House charges register.<ref name="CHUCAch">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486/charges URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD charges] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

==Controversies and conflicts==
*'''Purchase of The Knightland Foundation's properties:''' The two properties bought on 9 May 2025 had belonged to The Knightland Foundation (charity 1143110, company 07535303). The charity's charges over them were satisfied on 16 May 2025, and its accounts for the year ending 31 January 2025 state only that "Post year end the charity sold two of its commercial properties in order to repay the bank loan".<ref name="CCAccKF">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5017334/accounts-and-annual-returns THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION accounts and annual returns] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*'''Directors' earlier roles at the charity:''' Companies House records a Jacob Friedman (born January 1975, American) as a director of The Knightland Foundation from 18 February 2011 to 3 November 2023 and as its person with significant control until 7 April 2021, and a Raechel Friedman (born December 1974, British) as a director from 18 February 2011 to 21 December 2017.<ref name="CHKFoff">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/officers THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION – officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The match is by name, birth month and year and nationality, not by officer ID: Jacob Friedman holds more than one Companies House officer ID, and the Urban Capital Assets appointment uses a different ID from the Knightland one.<ref name="CHUCAoff" />
*'''Timing:''' the company was incorporated on 26 February 2025, Raechel Friedman was appointed on 22 April 2025, the purchase and the first charges were on 9 May 2025, and the company was registered as proprietor on 2 June 2025.<ref name="CHUCA" /><ref name="LRCCOD" />

==Shared directors with other orgs in the dataset==
*Jacob Friedman (officer ID o5AfnT6WWaUFcZas0qb-sc_joB4, born January 1975) was also a director of [[The F W Trust Ltd]] (charity 1131276, company 06930982) from 27 September 2016 to 27 April 2020.<ref name="CHFWT">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06930982/officers THE F W TRUST LTD officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Raechel Friedman was a director only of The Knightland Foundation and of this company.<ref name="CHUCAoff" />

==External links==
*[https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486 Companies House – URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD]
*[[The Knightland Foundation]]

==Notes==
<references/>

Urban Capital Assets Ltd

2026-10-14T14:03:34Z

David:

[[Urban Capital Assets Ltd]] (Company number 16278486) is a private limited company.
*Company incorporated: 26 February 2025 (Active); SIC 68209 - Other letting and operating of own or leased real estate.<ref name="CHUCA">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486 URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Former name: Bellview Holdings Ltd (26 February 2025 – 13 March 2025).<ref name="CHUCA" />
*Registered office address: 16c Urban Hive, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ.<ref name="CHUCA" />
*Statement of capital on incorporation: GBP 100.<ref name="CHUCA" />

==People==
===Directors===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Correspondence address !! Role !! Date of birth !! Appointed on !! Resigned on !! Nationality !! Country of residence
|-
| [[Friedman, Jacob]] || Urban Hive, 16c, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ || Active Director || January 1975 || 26 February 2025 || - || American || United Kingdom ||-
| [[Friedman, Raechel]] || 16c, Urban Hive, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ || Active Director || December 1974 || 22 April 2025 || - || British || England |
|}
Source: Companies House officers register.<ref name="CHUCAoff">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486/officers URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

===Persons with significant control===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Correspondence address !! Status !! Notified on !! Date of birth !! Nationality !! Country of residence !! Nature of control
|-
| [[Jacob Friedman]] || Urban Hive, 16c, Theydon Road, London, England, E5 9BQ || Active || 26 February 2025 || January 1975 || American || United Kingdom || Ownership of shares 75% or more; ownership of voting rights 75% or more; right to appoint or remove directors |
|}
Source: Companies House PSC register.<ref name="CHUCApsc">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486/persons-with-significant-control URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD persons with significant control] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

==Finances==
*No accounts filed. The company shortened its first accounting period from 28 February 2026 to 31 January 2026 (form AA01, filed 31 March 2025); the first accounts are due by 31 October 2026.<ref name="CHUCA" />

==Property==
HM Land Registry's company ownership data (October 2026) records the company as proprietor of three freehold titles, all registered on 2 June 2025.<ref name="LRCCOD">HM Land Registry, [https://use-land-property-data.service.gov.uk/datasets/ccod UK companies that own property in England and Wales] dataset, October 2026, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*120 St John Street, London EC1V 4JS (title 354647), freehold; price paid £3,500,000. HM Land Registry Price Paid Data records this as an "additional price paid" transaction dated 9 May 2025, so the figure may be an apportioned or bulk price.<ref name="PPD354647">HM Land Registry, [https://landregistry.data.gov.uk/data/ppi/transaction-record.csv?propertyAddress.postcode=EC1V%204JS Price Paid Data: EC1V 4JS] ''HM Land Registry'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Units 8 & 11, Tofts Farm Industrial Estate, Brenda Road, Hartlepool (title CE125869), freehold; price paid £2,800,000, also an "additional price paid" transaction dated 9 May 2025.<ref name="PPDCE125869">HM Land Registry, [https://landregistry.data.gov.uk/data/ppi/transaction-record.csv?propertyAddress.postcode=TS25%202DH Price Paid Data: TS25 2DH] ''HM Land Registry'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Land on the east side of Tofts Road East, Tofts Farm Industrial Estate, Hartlepool (title CE198436), freehold; no price recorded.<ref name="LRCCOD" />

==Charges==
{| class="wikitable"
! Charge !! Lender !! Created !! Delivered !! Status !! Property charged
|-
| 162784860001 || Recognise Bank Limited || 9 May 2025 || 13 May 2025 || Outstanding || 120 St John Street EC1V 4JS (title 354647); land on the east side of Tofts Road East, Hartlepool (CE198436); Units 8 & 11 Tofts Farm, Hartlepool (CE125869). Fixed and floating charge, negative pledge.
|-
| 162784860002 || Recognise Bank Limited || 9 May 2025 || 13 May 2025 || Outstanding || The same three properties. Fixed charge, negative pledge.
|-
| 162784860003 || Jemrex Capital Limited || 27 February 2026 || 2 March 2026 || Satisfied 16 June 2026 || The same three properties. Fixed and floating charge, negative pledge.
|}
Source: Companies House charges register.<ref name="CHUCAch">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486/charges URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD charges] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

==Controversies and conflicts==
*'''Purchase of The Knightland Foundation's properties:''' The two properties bought on 9 May 2025 had belonged to The Knightland Foundation (charity 1143110, company 07535303). The charity's charges over them were satisfied on 16 May 2025, and its accounts for the year ending 31 January 2025 state only that "Post year end the charity sold two of its commercial properties in order to repay the bank loan".<ref name="CCAccKF">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5017334/accounts-and-annual-returns THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION accounts and annual returns] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*'''Directors' earlier roles at the charity:''' Companies House records a Jacob Friedman (born January 1975, American) as a director of The Knightland Foundation from 18 February 2011 to 3 November 2023 and as its person with significant control until 7 April 2021, and a Raechel Friedman (born December 1974, British) as a director from 18 February 2011 to 21 December 2017.<ref name="CHKFoff">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/officers THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION – officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The match is by name, birth month and year and nationality, not by officer ID: Jacob Friedman holds more than one Companies House officer ID, and the Urban Capital Assets appointment uses a different ID from the Knightland one.<ref name="CHUCAoff" />
*'''Timing:''' the company was incorporated on 26 February 2025, Raechel Friedman was appointed on 22 April 2025, the purchase and the first charges were on 9 May 2025, and the company was registered as proprietor on 2 June 2025.<ref name="CHUCA" /><ref name="LRCCOD" />

==Shared directors with other orgs in the dataset==
*Jacob Friedman (officer ID o5AfnT6WWaUFcZas0qb-sc_joB4, born January 1975) was also a director of [[The F W Trust Ltd]] (charity 1131276, company 06930982) from 27 September 2016 to 27 April 2020.<ref name="CHFWT">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/06930982/officers THE F W TRUST LTD officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Raechel Friedman was a director only of The Knightland Foundation and of this company.<ref name="CHUCAoff" />

==External links==
*[https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486 Companies House – URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD]
*[[The Knightland Foundation]]

==Notes==
<references/>

The Knightland Foundation

2026-10-14T14:02:18Z

David: /* Trustees */

[[The Knightland Foundation]] (Charity number: 1143110; Company number 07535303) is a registered charity and private limited company by guarantee without share capital use of 'limited' exemption.<ref name="CCTrustees">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5017334/trustees THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION trustees] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref><ref name="CHCompany">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303 THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION overview] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

*Charity registered: 27 July 2011 (Registered)<ref name="CCTrustees" />
*Company incorporated: 18 February 2011 (Active); SIC 94910 - Activities of religious organisations<ref name="CHCompany" />
*Registered office address: Unit 1 Guard House, Grosvenor Way, London, --- Select ---, England, E5 9XE<ref name="CHCompany" />

==People==
===Trustees===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Role !! Date of appointment !! Other trusteeships
|-
| [[Moses Benedikt]] || Trustee || 26 April 2023 || [[Brid Gardens]] (charity number: 1197961) | [[Satmar Seminary]] (charity number: 1200219) | [[Tag North London]] (charity number: 1207389)
|-
| [[Jacob Kernkraut]] || Trustee || 22 June 2026 || [[E And E Kernkraut Charities Limited]] (charity number: 275636) | [[Alte Feiga Trust]] (charity number: 1126587) | [[Beis Ruchel D'Satmar (London) Limited]] (charity number: 1125988)
|-
| [[Joseph Weissman]] || Trustee || 22 June 2026 || [[Kehal Yetev Lev]] (charity number: 1199537)
|}
Source: Charity Commission register.<ref name="CCTrustees" />

===Historic trustees===
Trustees as listed in archived snapshots of the Charity Commission register (first and last snapshot in which each name appears; not a record of actual appointment or resignation dates).
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! First seen !! Last seen !! Snapshots listing name
|-
| [[Jacob Friedman]] || 28 September 2011 || 2 January 2019 || 4 <ref name="ARC1143110_1">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20110928175446/http://www.charitycommission.gov.uk/Showcharity/RegisterOfCharities/ContactAndTrustees.aspx?RegisteredCharityNumber=1143110&SubsidiaryNumber=0 The Knightland Foundation – register entry (28 September 2011)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 28 September 2011, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="ARC1143110_2">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20190102185727/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1143110&subid=0 The Knightland Foundation – register entry (2 January 2019)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 2 January 2019, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
|-
| [[Raechel Friedman]] || 28 September 2011 || 26 July 2017 || 2 <ref name="ARC1143110_1" /><ref name="ARC1143110_3">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20170726183414/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1143110&subid=0 The Knightland Foundation – register entry (26 July 2017)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 26 July 2017, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
|-
| [[Chezkel Landau]] || 28 September 2011 || 28 September 2011 || 1 <ref name="ARC1143110_1" />
|-
| [[Uriel Sholom Kaplan]] || 26 July 2017 || 2 January 2019 || 3 <ref name="ARC1143110_3" /><ref name="ARC1143110_2" />
|-
| [[Samuel Lew]] || 3 January 2018 || 2 January 2019 || 2 <ref name="ARC1143110_4">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20180103231302/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1143110&subid=0 The Knightland Foundation – register entry (3 January 2018)], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 3 January 2018, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref><ref name="ARC1143110_2" />
|}
===Directors===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Correspondence address !! Role !! Position !! Date of birth !! Age !! Appointed on !! Resigned on !! Nationality !! Country of residence !! Occupation
|-
| [[Moses Benedikt]] || Lower Ground Floor 139, Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Active || Director || May 1986 || 40 || 26 April 2023 || || British || England Identity verification due 30 October 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Jacob Kernkraut]] || Unit 1, Guard House, Grosvenor Way, London, --- Select ---, England, E5 9XE || Role Active || Director || January 1974 || 52 || 22 June 2026 || || British || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Joseph Weissman]] || 139 Lower Ground Floor, Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Active || Director || January 1975 || 51 || 22 June 2026 || || British || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Sarah Rebecca Derbaremdiger]] || Lower Ground Floor 139, Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Resigned || Director || May 1977 || 49 || 26 April 2023 || 21 July 2026 || British || England Identity verification due 30 October 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Baruch Shloma Ehrenfeld]] || Lower Ground Floor, 139 Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Resigned || Director || February 1988 || 38 || 30 December 2020 || 26 April 2023 || British || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Brenda Ruth Feldman]] || Lower Ground Floor 139, Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Resigned || Director || May 1956 || 70 || 26 April 2023 || 1 August 2026 || British || England Identity verification due 30 October 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Shmuel Baruch Feldman]] || Lower Ground Floor 139, Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Resigned || Director || December 1986 || 39 || 26 April 2023 || 18 June 2026 || British || England Identity verification due 30 October 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Jacob Friedman]] || 52 Knightland Road, London, United Kingdom, E5 9HS || Role Resigned || Director || January 1975 || 51 || 18 February 2011 || 3 November 2023 || American || United Kingdom || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Raechel Friedman]] || 52 Knightland Road, London, United Kingdom, E5 9HS || Role Resigned || Director || December 1974 || 51 || 18 February 2011 || 21 December 2017 || British || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Uriel Sholom Kaplan]] || 14 Montpelier Rise, London, United Kingdom, NW11 9SS || Role Resigned || Director || December 1976 || 49 || 25 January 2012 || 26 April 2023 || South African || United Kingdom || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Cheskel Landau]] || 60 Moresby Road, London, United Kingdom, E5 9LF || Role Resigned || Director || April 1962 || 64 || 18 February 2011 || 25 January 2012 || American || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Samuel Lew]] || Lower Ground Floor, 139 Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Resigned || Director || November 1975 || 50 || 31 March 2017 || 26 April 2023 || English || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Yaakov Shaltiel]] || 1st, Floor, 47 Bury New Road Prestwich, Manchester, England, M25 9JY || Role Resigned || Director || August 1977 || 49 || 18 February 2011 || 18 February 2011 || British || England || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Shraga Shalom Zaltzman]] || Lower Ground Floor 139, Osbaldeston Road, London, England, N16 6ND || Role Resigned || Director || June 1976 || 50 || 26 April 2023 || 23 June 2026 || British || England Identity verification due 30 October 2026 || Not disclosed
|-
| [[Joseph Colley]] || C/O Carter Backer Winter Llp, 56 Prescot Street, London, E1 8NN || Role Resigned || Receiver and Manager || || || 15 March 2022 || 10 November 2023 || || || Not disclosed
|-
| [[John Dickinson]] || C/O Carter Backer Winter Llp, 66 Prescot Street, London, E1 8NN || Role Resigned || Receiver and Manager || || || 15 March 2022 || 10 November 2023 || || || Not disclosed
|}
Source: Companies House officers register.<ref name="CHOfficers">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/officers THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

===Persons with significant control===
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Correspondence address !! Status !! Notified on !! Ceased on !! Date of birth !! Age !! Nationality !! Country of residence !! Nature of control
|-
| [[Jacob Friedman]] || C/O 66, Prescot Street, London, England, E1 8NN || Ceased || 6 April 2016 || 7 April 2021 || January 1975 || 51 || American || United Kingdom || Has significant influence or control
|}
*PSC statement: The company knows or has reasonable cause to believe that there is no registrable person or registrable relevant legal entity in relation to the company (notified 4 March 2022)
Source: Companies House PSC register.<ref name="CHPSC">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/persons-with-significant-control THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION persons with significant control] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>

==Finances==
{| class="wikitable"
! Financial year end !! Total income !! Total expenditure !! Income from donations and legacies !! Expenditure on charitable activities !! Grants to institutions !! Total funds (assets less liabilities) !! Cash !! Employees !! Volunteers !! Accounts received
|-
| January 2012 || £427,716 || £960 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1143110_3" />
|-
| January 2013 || £877,257 || £10,782 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1143110_3" />
|-
| January 2014 || £777,447 || £185,862 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1143110_3" />
|-
| January 2015 || £323,313 || £200,171 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1143110_3" />
|-
| January 2016 || £373,027 || £357,896 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1143110_3" />
|-
| January 2017 || £2,341,396 || £1,870,623 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1143110_4" />
|-
| January 2018 || £0 || £0 || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Not disclosed || Archived register entry<ref name="ARC1143110_2" />
|-
| 31 January 2021 || £1,791,474 || £1,057,842 || £1,127,331 || £804,291 || £704,581 || £5,649,305 || £3,432 || 0 || 5 || 30 November 2021 (due 30 November 2021)
|-
| 31 January 2022 || £728,866 || £533,766 || £66,260 || £303,338 || £127,800 || £5,284,405 || £148,641 || 0 || 0 || 3 November 2022 (due 30 November 2022)
|-
| 31 January 2023 || £697,899 || £450,324 || £74,533 || £142,424 || £0 || £5,531,980 || £864,387 || 0 || 0 || 22 November 2023 (due 30 November 2023)
|-
| 31 January 2024 || £833,405 || £1,534,169 || £41,145 || £1,164,107 || £790,320 || £4,831,216 || £167,373 || 0 || 0 || 2 September 2024 (due 30 November 2024)
|-
| 31 January 2025 || £688,018 || £843,862 || £17,700 || £474,003 || £370,000 || £4,125,322 || £20,757 || 0 || 0 || 18 September 2025 (due 30 November 2025)
|}
Source: Charity Commission financial history and register data.<ref name="CCFin">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5017334/financial-history THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION financial history] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026; figures from the Commission's public register data extract dated 13 October 2026.</ref> The Commission records grant-making as the charity's main activity.<ref name="CCOverview">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5017334 THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION overview] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref> Trustee payments: "One or more trustees receive payments or benefits from the charity."<ref name="CCOverview" />

*Companies House: last accounts made up to 31 January 2025 (Full accounts, filed 18 Sep 2025); next accounts made up to 28 January 2026, due by 28 October 2026.<ref name="CHCompany" /><ref name="CHAcc">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/filing-history THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION filing history] – Full accounts made up to 31 January 2025, filed 18 Sep 2025, ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>
*Companies House: last confirmation statement dated 16 October 2025; next due by 30 October 2026.<ref name="CHCompany" />
*Archived accounts: [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107153214/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends10/0001143110_AC_20150131_E_C.PDF year ending 31 January 2015]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107161228/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends10/0001143110_AC_20160131_E_C.PDF year ending 31 January 2016]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107152504/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends10/0001143110_AC_20170131_E_C.PDF year ending 31 January 2017]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107153213/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends10/0001143110_AC_20180131_E_C.PDF year ending 31 January 2018]; [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107161228/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends10/0001143110_AC_20190131_E_C.PDF year ending 31 January 2019].<ref name="ARC1143110_5">UK Government Web Archive, [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200107153214/http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends10/0001143110_AC_20150131_E_C.PDF The Knightland Foundation – archived accounts], archived snapshot of the Charity Commission register dated 7 January 2020, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*Registered charges (Companies House): 29 November 2019, Lloyds Bank PLC: "Freehold property known as 120 st john street london EC1V 4JS comprised under title number 354647, for more details of property being charge please refer to the instrument." (Satisfied); 24 October 2019, Lloyds Bank PLC: "The leasehold property known as or being flat 2, 2 fountayne road, london, N16 7DX comprised in title number NGL403404." (Satisfied); 24 October 2019, Lloyds Bank PLC: "The freehold property known as or being 50 lynmouth road, london, N16 6XL comprised in title number 253469." (Satisfied); 8 August 2019, Commercial Acceptances Limited: "All that freehold property situate and known as units 8 & 11 tofts farm industrial estate brenda road hartlepool TS25 2DH registered at hm land registry with title absolute under title number CE125869." (Satisfied); 23 August 2018, Commercial Acceptances Limited: "All that:. 1. freehold property situate and known as 50 lynmouth road, london, N16 6XL as the same is registered at hm land registry with title absolute under title number 253469.. 2. leasehold property situate and known as flat 2, fountayne road, london, N16 7DX as the same is registered at hm land" (Satisfied); 18 September 2013, Aldermore Bank PLC: "Notification of addition to or amendment of charge." (Satisfied); 18 September 2013, Aldermore Bank PLC: "F/H 120 st john street london t/no 354647. notification of addition to or amendment of charge." (Satisfied); 18 September 2013, Aldermore Bank PLC: "L/H ground floor 120 st john street london. Notification of addition to or amendment of charge." (Satisfied).<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/charges 07535303 charges] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*'''Property:''' The charity's accounts for the year ending 31 January 2025 value its investment property at £7,950,000 (£8,500,000 in 2022–24; cost £7,275,766). Bank loans of about £4.31m were secured on the properties, and the accounts note that "Post year end the charity sold two of its commercial properties in order to repay the bank loan".<ref name="CCAccKF">Charity Commission for England and Wales, [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/1143110/accounts-and-annual-returns THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION accounts and annual returns] ''Charity Commission for England and Wales'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
**120 St John Street, London EC1V 4JS (title 354647), freehold. Charged to lenders from 2013; the charges were satisfied on 16 May 2025.<ref name="CHKF">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/charges THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION – charges] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> HM Land Registry Price Paid Data records a purchase for £3,350,000 on 18 September 2013 and a sale for £3,500,000 on 9 May 2025. These are address matches only: Price Paid Data does not name the parties. Both are "additional price paid" (Category B) records.<ref name="PPDKF1">HM Land Registry, [https://landregistry.data.gov.uk/data/ppi/transaction-record.csv?propertyAddress.postcode=EC1V%204JS Price Paid Data: EC1V 4JS] ''HM Land Registry'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
**Units 8–11 Stadium North, Tofts Farm Industrial Estate East, Hartlepool TS25 2DH (title CE125869), freehold. Charged in 2019; the charges were satisfied on 16 May 2025.<ref name="CHKF" /> Price Paid Data records £138,578 on 8 August 2019 and £2,800,000 on 9 May 2025. Both are Category B records (which can include bulk or portfolio sales), and the parties are not named, so these are address matches only.<ref name="PPDKF2">HM Land Registry, [https://landregistry.data.gov.uk/data/ppi/transaction-record.csv?propertyAddress.postcode=TS25%202DH Price Paid Data: TS25 2DH] ''HM Land Registry'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
**50 Lynmouth Road, London N16 6XL (title 253469) and Flat 2, 2 Fountayne Road, London N16 7DX (title NGL403404). Both were charged in 2018–19, and the charges were satisfied by May 2025.<ref name="CHKF" />
**54 and 54A Lynmouth Road, London N16 6XL (title EGL183715). Held by the charity's subsidiary Bellview Management Ltd (07239964), with legal charges in favour of The Knightland Foundation dated 26 July 2023 and 29 August 2025, both outstanding.<ref name="CHBM">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07239964/charges BELLVIEW MANAGEMENT LIMITED – charges] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
**60 Gloucester Road and Units 1–4, 44A Gloucester Road, Croydon CR0 2DA (titles SY114139 and SGL116559). Charged in 2018 by Bellview Land Ltd (08798911), in which the charity held 50%; the charges were satisfied on 1 February 2020.<ref name="CHBL">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/08798911/charges BELLVIEW LAND LIMITED – charges] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>
*'''Land Registry (company-owned property):''' HM Land Registry's company ownership data (October 2026) lists 3 title(s) registered to the organisation or a linked company: 50 Lynmouth Road, London (N16 6XL) (title 253469, freehold; registered proprietor THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION (07535303); proprietor registered 04-12-2012, price paid £100,000); 54 Lynmouth Road, Stoke Newington, London (N16 6XL) (title EGL183715, freehold; registered proprietor BELLVIEW MANAGEMENT LIMITED (07239964); proprietor registered 31-08-2010, price paid £495,000); Flat 2, 2 Fountayne Road, London (N16 7DX) (title NGL403404, leasehold; registered proprietor THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION (07535303); proprietor registered 03-01-2013, price paid £54,000).<ref name="LRCCOD">HM Land Registry, [https://use-land-property-data.service.gov.uk/datasets/ccod UK companies that own property in England and Wales] dataset, October 2026, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref>

==Controversies and conflicts==
*'''Statutory inquiry:''' The Charity Commission opened a statutory inquiry into The Knightland Foundation on 24 February 2021, and appointed Interim Managers by order of 8 April 2021. The charity's appeal against that appointment was dismissed by the First-tier Tribunal (Charity).<ref name="KnightFTT">First-tier Tribunal (General Regulatory Chamber) Charity, [https://caselaw.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukftt/grc/2021/365 The Knightland Foundation v The Charity Commission for England and Wales [2021] UKFTT 365 (GRC)] ''First-tier Tribunal (General Regulatory Chamber) Charity'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref> The inquiry report, published 15 November 2024, found "serious mismanagement in the administration of the charity by the former trustees over an extended period of time". This included failing to identify and manage conflicts of interest, holding charity funds in the accounts of a private company, and inadequate record keeping. Charity funds were placed at considerable risk, although there was no ultimate loss. Five independent trustees were appointed on 26 April 2023.<ref name="GovKnight">Charity Commission (GOV.UK), [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/charity-inquiry-the-knightland-foundation/charity-inquiry-the-knightland-foundation Charity Inquiry: The Knightland Foundation] ''Charity Commission (GOV.UK)'', 15 November 2024, accessed 13 October 2026.</ref><ref name="CSKnight">Civil Society, [https://www.civilsociety.co.uk/news/educational-charity-gets-new-trustees-as-regulator-finds-serious-mismanagement.html Educational charity gets new trustees as regulator finds serious mismanagement] ''Civil Society'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>
*'''Related-party transactions:''' The latest filed accounts state: "Property management services for the value of £ 63,638 (202 4 - £ 78,368 ) were provided by Bellview Management (UK) Limited, a company under the control of a former trustee of the charity . These services were provided for part of the year free of charge , and have been shown in the accounts as a donation-in-kind. Other than the above and those disclosed in notes 9 & 14 t here were no disclosable related party transactions during the year . 21 Subsidiaries Details of the charity's subsidiaries at 31 January 2025 are as follows: Name of undertaking Registered Nature of business Class of % Held office shares held Direct Indirect Bellview Management Ltd Property Investment Ordinary Shares 100."<ref name="CHAcc" />
*'''Charity Commission regulatory alert:''' The register states: "The Charity Commission has published a report on its inquiry into the charity".<ref name="CCOverview" />
*'''Filing compliance:''' All 5 annual returns and accounts on the Charity Commission record were received by their due dates, and the register states "Charity reporting is up to date (on time)".<ref name="CCFin" /><ref name="CCOverview" />
*'''Overlapping trusteeships:''' [[Moses Benedikt]] is also a trustee of [[Brid Gardens]] (1197961), [[Satmar Seminary]] (1200219), [[Tag North London]] (1207389). [[Jacob Kernkraut]] is also a trustee of [[E And E Kernkraut Charities Limited]] (275636), [[Alte Feiga Trust]] (1126587), [[Beis Ruchel D'satmar (london) Limited]] (1125988). [[Joseph Weissman]] is also a trustee of [[Kehal Yetev Lev]] (1199537).<ref name="CCTrustees" />
*'''Shared trustees/directors:''' [[Moses Benedikt]] is also connected with [[Brid Gardens]] (1197961)<ref>Charity Commission for England and Wales, public register data extract (trustee table, trustee ID 12566138), 13 October 2026.</ref>, [[Satmar Seminary]] (1200219)<ref>Charity Commission for England and Wales, public register data extract (trustee table, trustee ID 12566138), 13 October 2026.</ref>, [[Tag North London]] (1207389)<ref>Charity Commission for England and Wales, public register data extract (trustee table, trustee ID 12566138), 13 October 2026.</ref>; [[Jacob Kernkraut]] is also connected with [[E And E Kernkraut Charities Limited]] (275636)<ref>Charity Commission for England and Wales, public register data extract (trustee table, trustee ID 1952614), 13 October 2026.</ref>, [[Alte Feiga Trust]] (1126587)<ref>Charity Commission for England and Wales, public register data extract (trustee table, trustee ID 1952614), 13 October 2026.</ref>, [[Beis Ruchel D'satmar (london) Limited]] (1125988)<ref>Charity Commission for England and Wales, public register data extract (trustee table, trustee ID 1952614), 13 October 2026.</ref>, [[Classquote Limited]] (1080482)<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/gyazNQ--Hc5plNoHTpTxex-P26w/appointments KERNKRAUT, Jacob appointments] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>; [[Joseph Weissman]] is also connected with [[Kehal Yetev Lev]] (1199537)<ref>Charity Commission for England and Wales, public register data extract (trustee table, trustee ID 12678557), 13 October 2026.</ref>; [[Brenda Ruth Feldman]] is also connected with [[Otto Schiff Housing Association]] (210396)<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/M-NLRI0mbPQP8k8QafW56YoQFFQ/appointments FELDMAN, Brenda Ruth appointments] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>, [[Jewish Care Community Foundation]] (1048105)<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/M-NLRI0mbPQP8k8QafW56YoQFFQ/appointments FELDMAN, Brenda Ruth appointments] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>, [[Jewish Care]] (802559)<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/M-NLRI0mbPQP8k8QafW56YoQFFQ/appointments FELDMAN, Brenda Ruth appointments] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>; [[Jacob Friedman]] is also connected with [[The F W Trust Ltd]] (1131276)<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/o5AfnT6WWaUFcZas0qb-sc_joB4/appointments FRIEDMAN, Jacob appointments] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>; [[Uriel Sholom Kaplan]] is also connected with [[Jewish Education Fund Limited]] (1046994)<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/oHsDRWLshszg0Dcz6c0QcBPHC-E/appointments KAPLAN, Uriel Sholom appointments] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>; [[Yaakov Shaltiel]] is also connected with [[Gesher]] (1142268)<ref>Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/D8d5OsyoPGBCST_f_-_u5yvFOjw/appointments SHALTIEL, Yaakov, Dr appointments] ''Companies House'', accessed 13 October 2026.</ref>.
*'''Sale of properties to a company controlled by a former trustee:''' In May 2025 the charity sold 120 St John Street, London EC1V 4JS (title 354647) and Units 8 & 11, Tofts Farm Industrial Estate, Hartlepool (title CE125869). HM Land Registry's company ownership data now records the proprietor of both titles as [[Urban Capital Assets Ltd]] (16278486), registered 2 June 2025, with prices paid of £3,500,000 and £2,800,000 respectively. The same company is also registered (on the same date) to an adjoining title, land on the east side of Tofts Road East, Tofts Farm Industrial Estate (CE198436).<ref name="LRCCOD">HM Land Registry, [https://use-land-property-data.service.gov.uk/datasets/ccod UK companies that own property in England and Wales] dataset, October 2026, accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> Urban Capital Assets Ltd was incorporated on 26 February 2025 as Bellview Holdings Ltd (renamed 13 March 2025). Its directors are Jacob Friedman (appointed 26 February 2025) and Raechel Friedman (appointed 22 April 2025), and Jacob Friedman is recorded as its person with significant control (75% or more). Its first charges, to Recognise Bank Limited and Jemrex Capital Limited, were created on 9 May 2025, the date of the purchase, over 120 St John Street.<ref name="UCAKF">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/16278486 URBAN CAPITAL ASSETS LTD (16278486)] (overview, officers, persons with significant control and charges) ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> Companies House records a Jacob Friedman (same month and year of birth and nationality) as a director of The Knightland Foundation from 18 February 2011 to 3 November 2023 and as its person with significant control until April 2021, and a Raechel Friedman (same month and year of birth) as a director from 2011 to 2017.<ref name="CHKFoff">Companies House, [https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303/officers THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION – officers] ''Companies House'', accessed 14 October 2026.</ref> The charity's accounts for the year ending 31 January 2025 state only that two commercial properties were sold after the year end to repay the bank loan.<ref name="CCAccKF" />

==External links==
*[https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/-/charity-details/5017334 Charity Commission – THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION]
*[https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/07535303 Companies House – THE KNIGHTLAND FOUNDATION]

==Notes==
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